Summary of the Guide for the Perplexed

This sheet summarizes the main points of the Guide for the Perplexed.

First, we have a list of points that the Rambam makes.
Then, I'll show the sources in the second part. The third part is a discussion of some topics.
This sheet can also be found (with footnotes & better formatting) as a google-doc here

Overview:

These four points are the main ideas contained in the Guide for the perplexed.

Chapter 1: Tanach and Midrash use metaphor:

Overview:

Examples:

Biblical references to God being in a place, moving, changing, having any attributes, feelings, or a body are all metaphors. ,,,

The Bible refers to God doing things when they happen via people’s decisions, nature, or randomness.

The creation story is not chronological. ,,,,,

The story of Adam & Eve is figurative. ,

Some elements of the revelation at Sinai are metaphor. ,,

All references to angels are metaphors for natural laws , and are seen or heard only in a vision.

All references to God speaking are metaphors for the prophet’s interpretation of the vision.

Stories that occur during prophesy are part of the vision.

All references to permanent changes in nature, such as melting of mountains are metaphors.

Excepting miracles of Moses, all public miracles are metaphors.

All references to God altering the nature of Man, even temporarily, are metaphors.

All miracles can be interpreted as metaphor, as long as it does not eliminate the hopes and fears of the people.

Chapter 2: We relate to God through the world:
Transcendence of God:
God is the object that does not need to be created.,
God is not an imaginable concept.
We can understand God by understanding what God cannot be.,
The less we think we know about God, the truer our perception.
God is not human. ,
God has no attributes ,, and is not in time or space. ,
God does not change.,
God did not create the world for a purpose.
God cannot do the logically impossible. ,
God cannot have a quality of having knowledge of the universe.
Actions of God:
We can understand God through behavior ,,
God uses the forces of the universe to manage the universe.
All names of God are reference to behavior.
God is called good, just, and wise in that God created laws of nature that are optimal to sustain life.
Love of God is based on understanding God’s actions.

Chapter 3: The universe is orderly:
The Nature of Nature:
It is fundamental to our faith that nature has not and will not change. ,,
The laws of nature are the same everywhere.
Plant, animal and human life are based on the natural laws of chemistry and physics.
The intellect, consciousness, and free will are based on the physical matter of our body, and follow the rules of physics and biology. ,,
Existence is good on the whole.
The laws of nature are perfect ,,,, but a given point of the creation on its own may not be good.
The universe started as a single point, and through natural fixed law developed over time minerals, then plants, then animals, then humans. ,,,
The universe has three parts.
Chaos:
The process by which the world and the laws of nature were created was chaotic and did not follow the rules of nature.
We cannot understand why the world was created.,,
Randomness exists, but the order of nature is dominant.
Nature and Mitzvot:
Mitzvot perform a function.
The goal of mitzvot is the well-being of the mind and body. ,,,
The goal of mitzvot is long-term, general, well-being. ,,
Mitzvot do three things: impart an idea or a character trait, or improve society.
The Torah is perfect on the whole of society. ,,
Mitzvot work through natural law. ,
The Laws in the Torah work through economic principles, giving man incentive to be helpful. ,
God does not intervene miraculously in our Mitzvot performance.
There cannot be a reason why God created the world requiring mitzvot performance.,
Reward and punishment are performed by natural law.

Chapter 4: The intellect comprehends the truth:
The power of the Intellect:
The Intellect can comprehend the true order of the world. ,
Conclusions should incorporate observational data. ,,,,,,,,
Man succeeds according to the perfection of his intellect ,,,insofar as it influences his behavior.
We must follow our intellect, , even if it would mean leaving the Torah of Moses.
We connect to God via our intellect. ,
We can understand the function of mitzvot. ,,
We must use our intellect to interpret the Torah correctly. ,
Man does not sin from his intellect. , Moral sense comes from the intellect.,
Man’s animal nature bars the intellect from perfect function.
We do not understand the full depth of the Torah.
The “Da’at” in the “Tree of Knowledge” refers to esthetic awareness not intellectual knowledge. ,
Prophecy:
Logical proof is as reliable as prophecy.
Prophesy works through intellect and imagination.
Except for that of Moses, prophesy works through the laws of nature and the physical matter of the mind.
Something can be judged as prophecy based on whether it is good for society. ,
The “spirit of God” is an inspiration to do good for society.
A “Holy Spirit” is induction or intellectual inspiration.
Discussion
The Intellect can comprehend the true order of the world.
The Guide’s system can be derived from this proposition in the following way.

Man’s intellect helps him make predictions.
The intellect can understand order.
Our observation is that the universe has order.
Understanding the order of the universe and acting in a way that aims for long-run success consonant to that understanding leads to long-run success.
Long-run success implies God’s will.
We relate to God via the universe.
We can understand our interaction with God by understanding the order of the universe.
The “Da’at” in the “Tree of Knowledge” refers to esthetic awareness not intellectual knowledge.
In 1:2, the Rambam expresses the idea that the Etz HaDaat represents system 1, the mental faculty in charge of aesthetics and feelings. From this perspective, “Da’at Tov V’Ra'' means “awareness of pleasant and ugly.”

This is implied in the original Arabic, where the Rambam uses the hebrew “tov v’ra” when quoting the verse, the Arabic “alkir” and “alshar” when talking about ethical good and evil, but Arabic “kabich” and “hasan” when explaining mefursamot, implying that “kabich” and “hasan” are not ethical good and evil. This is how the Abarbanel, Narboni, Shem Tov, Avraham Avulafia and Givat Hamoreh learn the chapter.

This is consonant with the Rambam’s perspective on the intellect in the Guide, particularly in 3:8 and 3:11. In the Guide, the intellect is the analytic faculty in man. The intellect is how Man emulates and connects with God, develops a sense of morality, and how Man succeeds. The Guide states that all of the mitzvot stem from an understanding of the world and all mitzvot have rational basis. This approach is consonant with the Rambam’s take on the story in 2:30, where he connects the Etz HaDaat with the Satan, and yetzer hara.

This is in line with the opinion in the Gemara and Zohar that the fruit of the Etz HaDaat is grapes, because they cause mourning or regret. Alcohol weakens the intellect. This is also the opinion reflected in the Zohar, that the Etz HaDaat parallels instability, evil, folly, and pleasure., This is also how Rav Soloveitchik explains the chapter in Worship of the Heart, Confrontation, and Emergence of Ethical Man. This is also exactly how Seforno, a student of the Guide, explains the story.
Why would anyone explain the chapter differently?

What led Freidlander to translate “mefursamot” as ethical good and evil is a later part of the Moreh, in 2:33, where the Rambam explains that the first two commandments were intellectual (muskalot) but the following eight were “mefursamot.” It is impossible to denigrate eight of the ten commandments as purely esthetic, and must refer to something ethical. Freidlander incorrectly applied “mefursamot” describing the solution to the “mefursamot” describing the problem. Note that later on, in 3:37, Ibn Tibbon and Kapach use the word “mefursamot” to describe the common erroneous beliefs and habits of pagan cultures.

Rav Soloveitchik, in the notes to the Moreh, also misinterprets this part, which is why Rav Soloveitchic grappled for so long without presenting a good answer. There is no question that the notes for the Worship of the Heart and Emergence of Ethical Man were written later, because they present a much more compelling interpretation.

The correct interpretation here is that the latter eight commandments rectify problems that humans have, and are not objective logical necessities. That is, the commandments are intellectual solutions to problems that arrive from the imagination, or system 1, referred to as the Etz HaDaat. This is supported by the Guide in 3:8, where the Rambam says that the whole point of mitzvot is to subdue desires. This is alluded to in the clothing that Adam & Eve make for themselves. See Seforno there, who explains that before eating from the tree, nakedness was not a problem. After they ate, it presented a problem, and the intellect drove Adam to solve it by wearing clothes.

The Gemara, in suggesting that the Etz HaDaat is figs and wheat imply that the tree is more than just the yetzer hara. However, the tree is not just knowledge, it represents the idea of the torah either educating the system 1, or even using the system 1’s weakness for our own good. An example of this is the chagorot, belts made of fig leafs, which represent rules of modesty and tzitzit, in the Zohar. This perspective on the Torah, as not being purely intellectual theory, but catering to the animal element of our mind is what the Rambam means later on. All law and din is there to redirect selfishness toward helpful behavior. The Zohar frames it as handling the evil instinct. Jewish rituals, in the Rambam’s framework, are symbolic and serve to create an esthetic sensual reality that affects our system 1. This is exactly how Seforno, a student of the Guide for the Perplexed, explains the story.

In 2:25, the Rambam sheds more light on his perspective. He mentions that we cannot know why God created the necessity for various mitzvot. In the Rambam’s framework, most mitzvot are not logical necessities, but are instead responses to our deficiencies. Those deficiencies are not logical necessities, but just are generated through “chidush haOlam” chaotic creation of the world. This is what makes them “mefursamot” instead of “muskalot.” The first two commandments are logical necessities that can be proven. The others are a response to our condition. See 3:31, where the Rambam gives three categories for the function of all mitzvot.

Given the question that’s asked in 1:2, we know the emphasis of the Rambam’s answer in 1:2.

The Guide interprets “elohim” to mean human judges. This implies that the skills to lead come from the Etz HaDaat. This is the advice of the snake, who was lying. The truth is that eating from the Etz HaDaat does not actually lead to successful leadership, but that leadership is best driven from the intellect.
We must follow our intellect

There are three lines of reasoning that we can follow to derive that the Guide holds that we must follow the intellect.

This is a sevara, which means it’s true independent of source. We know this because in 2:25, the Rambam says that had Aristotle proved the eternity of the universe, we would seek other philosophies. In addition, the Rambam views following the intellect as core to Judaism.

As for a source in the Torah, the closest thing to it would be the verse the Rabmam mentions in 2:34, regarding listening to a prophet. There, a prophet is called a “malach” , messenger or Angel, because the prophet is inspired by the intellect, which, as described in 2:6, is referred to as a “malach” or angel. We can apply a kal-va-chomer to derive that a person must listen to his own intellect. If a person must listen to a prophet because the prophet is enlightened by the intellect, all the more so a person must follow his own intellect. This is why the verse uses only the term “malach” or Angel, which ambiguously refers to both the prophet and the intellect.

The Rambam identifies messages of the intellect with those coming directly from God. In 1:37, the Rambam says “In the same sense the word is used in the following passage, "And the Lord spake unto Moses face to face," i.e., both being present, without any intervening medium between them…and also "The Lord talked with you face to face" (Deut. 5:4); instead of which we read more plainly in another place, "Ye heard the voice of the words, but saw no similitude: only ye heard a voice" (ib. 4:12).” Friedlander mistranslates “intermediary” as “similitude.” Because Israel prophesied via their intellect, per the Rambam’s opinion in 2:29, and the intellect interacts directly with God, their prophecy is considered “face to face” on the same level as Moses. Thus, even if Moses’ prophecy was directly to the intellect, without any imagination, it would still be considered direct and “face to “face.”

Note the Rambam’s insistence in 2:34 that all prophets used an angel except for Moses, while in 2:6 points out that angel as opposed to cherub is a reference for the imagination, and Moses heard prophecy from between the cherubs. “The intelligent reader will find here a clear statement that man's imaginative faculty is also called "angel," and that "cherub" is used for man's intellectual faculty.”

In 2:45, the vision of an angel is one step before God. The Rambam’s levels follow a chain of command: God tells the angel, which, as an intellect, is like a man, which gives a voice, which generates a vision. This vision is then interpreted by the prophet, using his intellect, as relating a message, spoken by an intelligent being, which is a messenger of God (angel) which ultimately expresses the will of God. Given that the angel is above a “man” and the symbolism of “man” in prophecy is consistently given by the Rambam as referring to the intellect, such as by Cherubs, “face of a man” , and even hands of man in the Merkava, the angel would be a source of intelligence.

This identification of insights of the intellects with messages from God are mirrored in Rav Soloveitchik’s work.

As the Rambam describes in the 3rd part, our intellect can be untrained or misled, due to its material origins. As a result, any intelligent person uses information from all sources when making decisions, including tradition, memes, and other people, when it comes to figuring out what practices lead to success.
Why Knowledge of Nature is Important
Knowledge of the natural order is important for three reasons:
To function and succeed practically.
To understand how mitzvot work.
To appreciate God’s creation.

The Rambam remarks in the Guide that use of the intellect is what leads people to success. This happens by understanding how the world works and operating in consonance.

The Rambam sees all mitzvot, or commandments, operating to improve society through the cnatural order of the cosmos. Thus, we cannot have any intuition regarding the function or meaning of mitzvot without a good grasp of how nature works. Psychology, sociology, economics, and biology are essential.

The Guide sees God’s wisdom and justice as expressed in the purposefulness and optimization of the natural order. Thus, without understanding this careful balance and how it operates, we cannot understand the Wisdom and Justice of God. This is why the Rambam states in Hilchot Yesodei HaTorah, that we learn to love God by understanding nature.
How prophecy works
Prophecy works in three steps. First, the prophet must have a perfected body, intellect and imagination. Second, the prophet’s intellect interacts with his imagination to give rise to a vision or dream. This process would not be too different from the process involved in an analogue computer, whereby mechanical processes can be exploited to determine things. Third, this vision is interpreted by the prophet using his intellect and verifies that the meaning of the vision is true. This would be similar to verifying the integrity of a private key. Although it is difficult to discover a private key, it is simple to verify its integrity once you have it.

In this way, prophecy can work without miracles to discover ideas that were not possible to discover by logical derivation before the vision.
Something can be judged as prophecy based on whether it is good for society
See Kapach. Ibn Tibbon in 2:40 roughly translates to:

“When you find a law that its intention and the exclusive intention of the law-giver (who estimated the behavior of the nation) is the order of the nation and its various needs, and to rid cruelty and violence from it, but did not in any way examine any sort of analysis or provide guidance to educate and the law gives no evidence that the law was informed by any proof of efficacy or analysis of causes, and the sole exclusive intention was to organize people’s affairs in some way, than even if in the estimation of the leader there is some measure of success from the law, you can be sure that this law is human in origin and those who make such laws have good imaginations only.”

Laws that aim to benefit society but don’t teach some truth are usually dysfunctional. Included in this category are laws imposing false beliefs under the guise of maintaining order. Because they are based on people believing a lie, the government typically has to expend tremendous effort maintaining the lie, and this usually comes at the expense of the general public. Thus, these laws, in total, do not improve the quality of life for the public, but do for the governing class. This is why we see such laws predominantly in poor dictatorships.

The above explains how the Guide can state that such laws originate from the imaginative faculty and not the intellect. These laws are not based on data and do not work for the long-run well-being of the society. Otherwise, the Guide would be implying that the methods whereby to correctly govern society originate from the imaginative faculty, something that is implied from an incorrect reading of the story of the Etz HaDa’at. However, this reading would not be consonant with the Guide’s general denigration of the imagination as the source of fantasy and desire and venerating the intellect as the source of good governance and morality.
The difference between the two types of law is not in one being pedagogical and one being purely functional, but that one formulates the law using careful analysis and the other is purely based on fantasy and imagination. An ideal law uses analysis in finding an optimal economic balance that is impossible to arrive at via the imagination alone. Because optimal law is based on analysis and truth, people that consider the law well are able to learn how the world works from the law. This is how the law becomes pedagogic.

This is what the Guide refers to when it talks about Angels here, as Angels are a metaphor for natural forces.

The paragraph in 2:40 is talking about laws that the law-creator claims to have originated in prophecy. If we include “holy spirit” in the category of prophecy here, we include laws that aim to improve society and teach a truth, even when not originating from prophets, as in 2:45. This would enable us to explain how rabinic decrees do not originate from prophets and are also not plagiarized.
Providence, Mitzvot, Good and Evil, and Prophecy
The philosophy of providence, mitzvot, and good and evil must be consonant. The will of God is intuited from what is rewarding. Thus, if good is the will of God, then this must be consonant with providence. Mitzvot, defined as actions that conform to the will of God, must therefore have the function of producing good and thereby working with the mechanics of providence to lead to some reward. This consonance is true irrespective of what the theory of mitzvot is.

We see the Rabmam utilizing this triple identity in 3:17, when describing pain to animals. The lack of providence for animals corresponds to not having a mitzvah prohibiting harming animals, and this is not a violation of the justice of God. Although the Rambam does not bring the example, the commandment given to Noah to save the species of animals also conforms to this identity.

We can clarify what the Guide holds by applying what it says on providence, mitzvot and good and evil where he may be ambiguous on one of those. For example, if mitzvot operate on the societal level and are perfect only on the whole and not on the individual level, then providence regarding compliance on those mitzvot also operate on a societal level. If mitzvot function through natural law, then so does providence. If providence does not rely on the afterlife the realization of divine justice, then the mitzvot do not function on the afterlife. Similarly, if good and evil are defined in terms of life and death, then we can also figure that the function of mitzvot is to promote life, and that providence rewards the promotion of life. If providence rewards a refined intellect, we must figure that a refined intellect leads to more good and that mitzvot work to promote a refined intellect.

Similarly, we can learn from the Rambam’s limitation of the scope of prophecy in 2:45 that the definition of Good and Evil and providence are similarly defined. The Rambam in 2:45 emphasizes that the spirit of God refers to an impulse “to deliver a congregation of good men from the hands of evildoers; to save one noble person, or to bring happiness to a large number of people…to help either a distinguished man or a whole congregation when oppressed…We only apply such phrases to those who have accomplished something very good and grand” This implies that the larger community has inherent “Good” and the impulse to help them is an expression of God’s will. Given this is an expression of God’s will, and God’s will is always carried out, this must be aligned with providence. Given the function of mitzvot is to augment good in this world, the function of mitzvot must conform similarly.

Job
The answer given to Job by God follows what the Guide mentions in 3:12 that the good of the world is revealed when one evaluates things broadly, rather than on the basis of each individual. This is consonant with what the Guide says about the laws of nature being always good, as is written “Tov M’od” or “very good” in the end of the Genesis. That is, God operates the world algorithmically through the laws of nature, and the laws of nature are perfect when evaluated broadly. Sensations of pain and pleasure are optimized for the survival of the human species, but not for the maximum success of the individual. This also explains why the Guide says the author of Job hid elements of the book, and why the Guide itself does not clarify the ultimate answer.

The description of God and Satan earlier on must be from the perspective of the imagination of Job, rather than an accurate portrayal of the truth. Job’s assumption is that God has equal goals of pain and pleasure. Satan represents the concept of randomness, which the Guide admits. The other angels represent consistent laws of nature.

Elifaz says that Job deserved all that happened to him due to something that happened in the past that Job doesn’t know about. This is similar to the Kabbalistic philosophy of Gilgul mentioned in the Bahir to answer this question.
Bildad says that Job will be rewarded in the future for his pain. This is similar to the philosophy of Olam Haba as a place of reward for pain.
Tzofar says that there is no function of God’s actions.
Elihu emphasizes that providence is a function of the intellect, and had Job had a perfect intellect he would understand why this happened and would have been able to avoid the misery in the first place. This follows the Guide’s perspective on Providence. See 3:51.

These are rejected by the Guide as incomplete answers to the problem of misery. However, elements of all of these answers are present in Maimonides’ writings, in particular the Laws of Repentance.
Reward and punishment are performed by natural law.

In the Rambam’s perspective, a mitzvah performs something that’s good in God’s perspective. What we view as good in God’s perspective must be substantiated by our observations of what nature itself sustains and protects. The providence of God works through nature, so that which nature preserves is under the providence of God. We observe that nature preserves entire species but does not grant eternal life to individuals. Thus, we cannot say that God cares for individual animals, but, by setting the laws of nature, God cares for the web of life and ecological balance that we observe. Aristotle was not aware of species coming in and out of existence.

In correspondence, in 3:17, the Rambam notes that giving pain to animals is not because there is something inherently evil with giving pain to animals, but because of the psychological impact on humans.

The Rambam, in 3:17, 3:18 details two types of Hashgacha, providence. One applies to all species, and is implemented through natural law. The other, which applies to man only, is a function of his intellect. It is not so much that God rewards him for his intellect, but that God guides him through his intellect, so that he can better his life by using his intellect. This is Aristotle's perspective, with the caveats that the Rambam describes. Decisions a person makes through use of his intellect or by ignoring his intellect, engender results that are in line with providence. Given that the human intellect conforms to natural law, it follows that hashgacha or providence is a function of natural law. We observe that nature preserves and protects humans much more than animals as a function of their use of the intellect to develop liberating technologies and memes. We also observe a wide variation among outcomes for people based on their behavior and decisions that we do not observe in the wild.

For this approach to correspond with our observations and mathematical realities, we’d propose that the Rambam would say there is a two-dimensional continuum, where both dimensions of individual behavior, and social context interact to protect the person. The behavior and perfection of the society a person is a part of will help just as an individual’s perfection. To have exceptional protection from God, one needs to have exceptional intellect and behavior. But, if a person is part of a just society, he doesn’t need exceptional behavior. In summary, the Guide would hold that outcomes are a function of nature, nurture, skill and luck. Nurture is basically the perfection of the mind, and skill is the use of the intellect. Nature is hashgacha of the species, and luck is just that.

Rav Shmuel ben Tibon, quoted in Narboni’s commentary to 3:51, explains providence and the notion that the forefathers and Moses were so connected with their minds that nothing could hurt them. Ben Tibon explains that this works via nature, that when a person is brilliant, they will avoid putting themselves in situations of danger to begin with.

See 2:45 and our discussion above on the link between prophecy and providence.
Mitzvot perform a function
The Guide asserts in 3:31 that all mitzvot must have a function that is communicable and understandable and enviable. The discussion in 3:26 regarding the role of details in mitzvot appears to contradict 3:31.

We can resolve the inconsistency by saying that the Rambam differentiates between mitzvot that function physically, such as making a fence around one’s roof, and those that operate either symbolically, that are the result of practical limitations that prevent people from realizing an ideal, or enabling coordination by mandating an arbitrary standard.

Similarly, we can resolve the problem in 3:41, that the Rambam claims to only be explaining the text, but not the Rabbinic interpretation, as also explaining why the Torah opts to describe things the way it does. In the Rambam’s eye, we can learn about the function of financial payment from the way such a payment is described in the Torah.

The notion that all mitzvot must operate physically would imply that there are many unobserved physical dynamics that connect things like sacrifices to physical outcomes such as rain. Because they are unobserved, we would not be able to have any intuition about how mitzvot operate. This precludes understanding mitzvot in the same way that thinking there is no rationale behind mitzvot. This would lead to the conclusion that the intellect is not useful in understanding mitzvot, which the Rambam rejects.

Mitzvot, in the Guide’s perspective, do not include all behavior that could possibly be good or evil. Rather, mitzvot serve as a salve to remedy common problems people have with practically living in accordance with a perfect mind.
The goal of mitzvot is the well-being of the mind and body
Even the most abstract articles of faith are mandated because of the impact they have on the wellbeing of civilization. In 3:31, the Guide assets that all mitzvot have a purpose which is understandable, communicable, and enviable.

Monotheism is important because it engenders practices that work. This is implied from Rambam's explanation that idolatry is bad because it leads to practices that do not work. This implies that monotheism’s importance lies in enabling inquiry and development on the premise of universal consistent law. Consider the following, in 1:72: “This mode of considering the universe is, as will be explained, indispensable, that is to say, it is very useful for demonstrating the unity of God; it also helps to elucidate the principle that He who is One has created only one being.” To the Guide, the notion of one coherent universe is identified with the experience of one God.

This explains the passage in 1:76 “observe how they rushed, as it were, from the ashes into the fire, this is because they denied the nature of existence, misrepresented the properties of heaven and earth…” Translation from Ibn Tibbon. This statement explains what the Rambam found so troubling about the Mutakallim. The whole point of monotheism is faith in one cosmic order. Because a “God” “El” refers to a power, monotheism is synonymous with a single cosmic law. Rejecting an understandable, consistent cosmic order, while keeping faith in a creator is worse than adopting faith in a single cosmic order and rejecting creation of the world. It is by name monotheism, but in practice no better than idolatry. Thus, even faith in a creator, when detached from its function is problematic.

In a similar vein, belief in the creation of the world is subordinate to belief in miracles as implied in 2:25. In 1:71, the Guide rejects the notion that God’s existence is dependent on the existence of miracles or the creation of the world. Belief in miracles is only important because it impacts the fears and aspirations of the people, which in turn impacts their behavior.

This functional approach to dogma corresponds with the Guide’s use of metaphor.

Even though the Rambam believes that the goal of the Torah cannot be limited to temporal pleasures, and that the benefits in the afterlife are greater than those in this world, Mitzvot, as described by the Rambam, don’t directly build the afterlife, but instead set the stage to enable individual to pursue it.
Afterlife
The Rabmam did not view the function of any mitzvah as mere preparation for an afterlife. The Rambam, in the Guide, does not use the afterlife to explain providence or divine Justice.

The Guide, in 3:17 rejects the opinion that God performs actions in this world that serve no other purpose besides boosting reward in another world. The Guide, in 3:17 also rejects the opinion that God tests man, putting him in uncomfortable situations to test his loyalty and earn reward. The Guide, in 3:26 rejects the idea that there could be a mitzvah without a purpose. The Guide also mentions that the intellect is a “nivdal” or separate, and as such has no material and does not exist in space or time. The Guide limits this afterlife to the intellect, meaning that it cannot serve as a place of reward for non-intellectual mitzvot.

The Guide is insistent that the intellect has a supreme practical function in terms of enabling man to succeed. , In 3:28, he describes how required articles of faith are necessary for society to function. Thus, Guide does not need to resort to an afterlife to describe the function of mitzvot that perfect the intellect.

Given that the Guide promotes non-literal interpretation of the Tanach, and statements of Chazal, we can propose that the Guide itself uses metaphor. Note Narboni’s remark in his commentary on 2:30, that the Guide refers to eternal success through the expression “permanent life.” See also Yerushalmi Shekalim “Did David imagine that he would live and endure forever?!”

The mind, consciousness, soul, are based on the physical matter of our body, and follow the rules of physics and biology.
The Rambam describes animals as having imagination in 1:72, free will in 3:17, and feelings of pain in 3:48. Thus, the sensation of experience, or consciousness, belongs to the imaginative faculty. The Rambam in 1:72 describes the intellectual capability of man, called the “koach medaber”, as part of the human body. He also states there “it is impossible that any of the members of a human body should exist by themselves, not connected with the body, and at the same time should actually be organic parts of that body”

In 3:17, the Rambam describes the intellect as being developed from minerals via natural processes. In 1:72 he describes the intellect as being driven by the spheres, in the same manner as everything else.

However, the Rambam asserts, in 1:72, that the “acquired intellect” is separate from the body. This would equate to the “form of God” as, according to 1:7, Cain and Abel did not have this because they were not educated. This is also the part of the body that remains after a person dies. The Rabmam gives no indication that this part of the body is supernatural in any sense, and also expresses in 1:72 his own uncertainty regarding what or where it exists. It is not clear that the “acquired intellect” is a bodily faculty in the Rambam’s eye. Note the wording in 1:71: “is from without, brought into contact with the body”. The “acquired intellect” refers to pure information acquired by the person.

Given the connection between the human intellect and the Separate Intelligences, we can suppose that the Rambam viewed learned truths as connecting a person’s physical mind to the laws running the universe. When the human brain learns fundamental truths of how the world operates, it attaches itself to and becomes identified with the Separate Intelligences that run the universe. In this sense, this part of the person lives for eternity, just as the Separate Intelligences run the universe eternally. We see this expressed in the Talmud’s “These and these are the words of the Living God.” Also, see Tanya, which describes this unity. This is implied in Hilchot Teshuva 8:2 and 8:3 where the Rambam connects the concepts of the afterlife and knowledge that is acquired, in distinction to anything dependent on the body.
The Metaphor of the City
In chapter 3:51, the Rambam presents a metaphor of the city. This is the explanation.
Conversation with the king is prophecy or intellectual enlightenment.
The palace itself is the world of thought. It is like the Garden of Eden, the place of the separate intelligences.
Those away from the palace are those who don’t understand that there is great potential for those who behave and learn properly.
Those with the backs toward the king’s palace are people of other religions. They have received some wisdom in their religions, but they face the wrong way because their religion drives them toward folly and fantasy rather than bringing them closer to the truth. The more religious they become, the further they stray from the palace.
The “multitude that observe the divine commandments” are those who have the ideal, but don’t understand how divinity is connected to reason and truth. Thus, they want to go to the palace, but fail to arrive.
Those who arrive at the palace but don’t go in are people that have knowledge of the law, but fail to see the reason and logic behind it. Thus, they never enter although they could have. As long as a person has not completed studies of science, they cannot enter because they will not be able to understand the depth and logic behind the Torah.
Those that enter the palace do so through understanding the reason and depth behind the commandments. Of course there are many levels, as there are many independent ways and levels of understanding. A person cannot understand the economic function of mitzvot without understanding economics. Similarly, a person cannot understand the psychological or sociological function of mitzvot without understanding those as well.
Proofs are reflections of a deep understanding of a thing. Thus, when a person can prove something, they must understand its essential nature. A person that believes something but can’t prove it, knows it with his imagination, not with his intellect.
Knowledge of God means knowledge of God’s universe: how it works, where it is going, and how we should behave in it. Torah, that is, the 613 commandments are a subset of divine knowledge that focus on handling mankind’s deficiencies stemming from passions and imagination. The commandments are the cornerstone of society, and they reflect the nature of the cosmos, but they are not, of themselves, a complete understanding of the universe. See 3:54, where the Guide describes how Torah is called wisdom.
Fourth Part
The Rambam did not know that species come in and out of existence. Similarly, he did not know about societal progress that does not revert. The notion that technological change occurs regularly was not current until the 19th century. This is why he finds the rationale for mitzvot sufficient even when dependent on a primarily agricultural economy, and is only bothered a little by the extinction of pagan cultures.

This implies that the rationale for mitzvot must be discoverable to accommodate changes in humanity.
The Universe has Three Parts
2:11 "the whole Creation is divided into three parts, viz. (1) the pure Intelligences; (2) the bodies of the spheres endowed with permanent forms--(the forms of these bodies do not pass from one substratum to another, nor do their substrata undergo any change whatever); and (3) the transient earthly beings, all of which consist of the same substance."

The Rambam included this in his Laws of the Foundations of the Torah because his organization of the universe describes how we relate to God through the universe. In the Rambam’s perspective the three levels are as below.
The Separate Intelligences:
The existence of this place is extrapolated from the human intellect. By “intellect” the Greeks did not mean literal intellect, but that it functions similarly to the way the intellect functions in humans in that it causes action by thought.

In the Torah, this area is referred to as the “shmei hashamayim” or the “Heaven of Heavens” , the Face of God, and the waters above the firmament. This area is symbolized in the Temple as the Holy of Holies,, and the place of the throne in the vision of Ezekiel.

In this domain are the laws of nature transcendent of time and space. These never change, are eternal, intelligent, in that they engender order and life. In other literature, these are the “Seraphim” which are snake angels. In the Guide, they are called “Cherubs” In Lurianic Kabbalah, this domain is called “briya” creation and in the Sefer Yetzirah, it is referee to as “Olam” meaning “hidden”.

The “active intellect.” is the causal-bridge between the Intelligences and the Spheres.
The Spheres:

The existence of this place is based on observations of stars and extrapolating from the bond in people between the mind and the body, which is called “spirit” or “ruach.”

In the Torah, this area is referred to as the “rakiya” or firmament. The Rambam interprets the “Brickwork of sapphire” as referring to this area. This area is symbolized in the Temple as the Holy, the place of the Menorah and the Table, and is the place where the angels sing in the vision of Ezekiel.

In this domain are the forces of nature that change but are eternal. This parallels the “chayot” or animal angels, which are the spheres and control the planets and constellations which are referred to as “animals” in the Zohar. This is the world of “Yetzira, and in the Sefer Yetzira, it is called “shana” meaning “change.”
The Material:
These are forces and things in our world that come into and out of existence. These are the “ofanim.” In Kabbalah, this domain is called “Asiya” and in the Sefer Yetzira it is called “Nefesh” as this world is anthropocentric. This area is symbolized in the Temple as the courtyard, and the ancients viewed it as paralleling the body.

In the Rambam’s worldview, the angelic order lends the world structure, law, and consistency. It is specifically through this world and order that we relate to God. The world is good and the laws of the world are good, and we experience God through every element of the world. This is in opposition to the theological perspective that holds that we must transcend the natural order in order to develop spiritually or that miracles or other worlds are necessary for divine judgment.

In Kabbalistic thought, there is a fourth world, called Atzilut. The Rambam does not talk about this as a world, because it is actually different ways of thinking about God. The Rambam fully appreciates the different ways that we relate to God in a way that parallels the Kabbalistic Sefirot of Atzilut. Notably, 3:53, 1:69, and 2:12. Note also 1:46, that attributes of God really describe “forces.”

An overview of the different types of angels or forces on each part is implied in the Guide’s description of three types of objects: things that come in and out of existence, things that change, and things that cause other things to change.
The universe started as a single point, and through natural fixed law developed over time minerals, then plants, then animals, then humans.
Maimonides states this with no fanfare in 2:30. Belief in spontaneous generation was current at the time of Maimonides, so this was considered part of the normal function of the planet. Mundane origins for man didn’t present a problem to the Guide, because what makes man distinct, in the Guide, isn’t Man’s origin or anything supernatural. It is the intellect that perceives the true order of the universe.
God did not create the world for a purpose.
Thus, the existence of God does not answer questions of the ultimate meaning of life and the universe. Rather, the existence of God, in the Guide, is primarily about embracing the unified function and order of the universe, and not really much about the origin or purpose of it.
God cannot do the logically impossible.
God cannot have attributes, and so the notion that God can do anything can only be understood as an attribute of action, describing the behavior of the universe. This means that we never observe anything that is logically impossible. If what we imagine as God is actually bound by logic, this means that logic itself is God. This is what the Rambam means when he describes this as not limiting the “hand of God” in 3:16.

This double negative is similar to what the Rambams says about God’s existence. In 1:58 “when we say of this being [God], that it exists, we mean that its non-existence is impossible.” That is, while God cannot have an attribute of existence, it is impossible for God not to exist in some way, given that we experience creation. Similarly, regarding the famous “rock that God cannot move” question, this approach would have us positing that while God cannot have an attribute that grants the ability to create things that cannot be moved, we also believe that God cannot be restricted by anything. God cannot have an attribute that bounds God to logic, but it is impossible for God to do the impossible, by identity. Identities are not provable but are axiomatic. Another way of putting this is: If God can do it, it’s possible.

The rules of a system cannot be used to prove the integrity of that system. For example, the laws of mathematics can’t be used to prove the veracity of mathematics. Similarly, logic cannot be used to prove the universality of logic itself. Thus, the Rambam does not attempt to prove this idea, rather it is accepted as axiomatic, much like the fundamental axioms of mathematics.

To have any rational, understandable, reliable, or predictable relationship with God, we must presume some sort of system that would help define that relationship. So this concept is not just a theoretical curiosity. Rather, the basis of Science, mathematics and logic as understanding the real truth of the universe hinges on this question. Just as the axioms of mathematics and science are determined based on their utility, so too with axioms pertaining to logic and cosmology.

In 1:75, we have: “we do not say that God is imperfect because He cannot transform Himself into a body, or cannot create another being like Himself, or make a square whose diagonal should be equal to one of its sides.”

Logical proof is considered equal to direct prophecy. Thus, intuition about what is possible can determine the will and actions of God. This notion could not be accurate if God could do the impossible.
We can understand God through behavior.
The negative attributes’ main purpose is to redirect our focus in understanding God to thinking about God’s actions which are our observations of the behavior of the world.

Understanding of God has three steps. First a person learns about God via metaphors. Later a person learns gradually that God cannot have any positive attributes. Third, a person interprets all the descriptions of God as descriptions of behavior rather than describing God directly.

Without the third step, the negative attributes fail to yield a satisfying way to relate or think about God or yield any positive practical results. Without the second step, we would not know to redirect our focus from positive attributes to attributes of action. Thus, both steps are necessary.

The focus on God’s just guidance and wisdom as expressed in the constant and omnipresent laws of nature is how the immediate connection with God is imagined in the Rambam’s system. This is the basis of the Comment in 3:28 “And thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy might" (ibid. 6:5), what stress is laid on this commandment to love God. We have already shown in the Mishneh-torah (Yes. ha-torah 2:2) that this love is only possible when we comprehend the real nature of things, and understand the divine wisdom displayed therein.”

There is a unity between the knowledge of God, and knowledge of the laws whereby God runs the world. This is how providence is linked to the perfection of the intellect.
Knowledge of God
When the Guide talks about the knowledge of God (that is, things that God knows), the Guide is talking about an attribute of action. As an attribute of action, the knowledge of God is a property of God’s action. See 3:19-3:21. Thus, 68, which talks about the equivalence between knowledge and the knower, is really talking about the unknown faculty that results in the order of the universe.

In 3:19: “His eternal knowledge, which has established their actual properties, and made part of them purely spiritual, another part material and constant as regards its individual members, a third part material and changeable as regards the individual beings according to eternal and constant laws.”

This is how the Guide explains the “soul” of the spheres, in 2:4, which is limited to function.

In 3:21: “Suppose a thing is produced in accordance with the knowledge of the producer, the producer was then guided by his knowledge in the act of producing the thing. Other people, however, who examine this work and acquire a knowledge of the whole of it, depend for that knowledge on the work itself.”

This is similar to a computer program for a game. Although the configuration of what is happening in the game changes, perhaps with some randomness and some input from the player, the software driving the outcome and giving the game a sense of intelligence does not change. The water clock example the Rambam brings is the same metaphor.
All miracles can be interpreted as metaphor, as long as it does not eliminate the hopes and fears of the people.

This follows from Ibn Tibbon and Schwartz’s translation of 2:25. Additionally, see the Shem Tov there, which takes this approach.

Aristotle held that the world doesn’t change permanently. There is no technological progress, no permanent redemption or slavery, no permanent improvement of the human condition, no punishment for evil behavior or reward for good behavior. See 3:15-3:18 for more detail on Aristotle’s view of providence. Those beliefs are what the Rambam refers to in 2:25 as uprooting the entirety of the Torah, because they would affect people’s behavior.

When the Rambam talks of miracles being necessary, it is in the sense of “pele” meaning proof, and “nes” meaning sign, as in 3:25. From this perspective, miracles are things that inform people and help the world develop. This concept of the world continually learning from new information is essential to the concept of a continual evolution of society that forms the crux of the Torah’s mission. This perspective is reflected in Rav Soloveitchik’s writings.

This approach makes sense of the Guide’s suggestion in 3:50 that the genealogy in the Bible is to support the theory of creation. That the world has a chronology and development rejects the notion of eternity of the universe.

Conversely, the expectation of future miracles, as violations of natural law, cannot form the basis of Israel’s fear and hope, because the Rambam holds that providence is based on natural law. Additionally, in Yesodei HaTorah 10:1, the Rambam rejects the necessity of violations of the natural order for prophesy.

Belief in miracles themselves independent of the lessons learned from them could not be insisted upon by the Rambam. By construction, there would be no purpose for those mitzvot, and the Rambam holds that all mitzvot have a purpose. In the Rabmam’s framework, belief in a miraculous origin of the mitzvot is not necessary for observance because all mitzvot have an understandable function.

The Rambam does not believe that the “signs” and “pele” or “nes” of a prophet need to violate natural law. The Rambam states in the Mishneh Torah that we do not base our faith on miracles, and that all the miracles mentioned in the Tanach were not performed to develop faith. Thus, faith in the history of miracles cannot be a necessary component of Judaism.

Throughout the first part, the Rambam is careful to frame non-literal interpretations as “homonyms” not as “metaphor”, so in the Rambam’s framework, metaphor is essentially a literal interpretation. The Rambam states in 2:47 that “Employ your reason, and you will be able to discern what is said allegorically, figuratively, or hyperbolically, and what is meant literally.”
Creation is not Chronological
The Guide presents the following understanding of the creation story, based on 2:30, the preceding chapters, and 1:67.

The six days of creation are unique in that they describe the creation of the laws by which the universe operates.
By construction, this creation is purely chaotic and not based on the laws that were created.
This creation occurred transcendent of time, because time is a creation
After creation, these laws never change, even for miracles
The sabbath is a metaphor for the way the laws of the universe implements the will of its creator without new intervention by its creator.
The universe evolved over time through natural law
After time starts after the six days, the universe evolved through the process dictated by natural law from a single point.
This point split in a fractal-like way. Splitting from a single point, to the four elements, dividing into the three parts of the universe, then into land and sea. The material evolved into plants, the plants into animals, and animals into humans.
Planets are considered like animals because they have properties of perpetual movement.
The story of Adam & Eve is a metaphor for mankind’s nature, potential, and problems.

Some elements of the revelation at Sinai are metaphor.
The Rambam takes many of the descriptions of physical phenomena at Sinai as metaphor for the intellect and learning.

In 1:3 “The words "And the similitude of the Lord shall he behold" (Num. 12:8) therefore mean "he shall comprehend the true essence of the Lord."” Compare the similar use in 1:5, regarding Moses at the bush.

In 1:5, “But "the nobles of the Children of Israel" were impetuous, and allowed their thoughts to go unrestrained: what they perceived was but imperfect. Therefore it is said of them, "And they saw the God of Israel, and there was under his feet," etc. (Exod. 24:10); and not merely, "and they saw the God of Israel"; the purpose of the whole passage is to criticize their act of seeing and not to describe it. They are blamed for the nature of their perception, which was to a certain extent corporeal--a result which necessarily followed, from the fact that they ventured too far before being perfectly prepared. They deserved to perish, but at the intercession of Moses this fate was averted by God for the time. They were afterwards burnt at Taberah, except Nadab and Abihu, who were burnt in the Tabernacle of the congregation, according to what is stated by authentic tradition. (Midr. Rabba ad locum.)”

In 1:8: “you must understand that the word makom has the same signification in the passage "Behold, a place (makom) is with me" (Exod. 33:26), viz., a certain degree of contemplation and intellectual intuition (not of ocular inspection), in addition to its literal meaning "a place," viz., the mountain which was pointed out to Moses for seclusion and for the attainment of perfection.” Here, Makom must imply the intellect, which connects man to God.

In 1:10: “When, on the other hand, it says, "And Moses went up unto God" (Exod. 19:3), it must be taken in the third signification of these verbs, in addition to its literal meaning that Moses also ascended to the top of the mount, upon which a certain material light (the manifestation of God's glory) was visible; but we must not imagine that the Supreme Being occupies a place to which we can ascend, or from which we can descend. He is far from what the ignorant imagine.” Here the Rambam does not tell us what this means, because it is part of Sitrei Torah. Given everything else the Rambam says, this would be a metaphor for the ascent of the mind of Moses to perceive the complete nature of Hashem, as the Rambam implies in 1:3.

In 1:13 The Rabmam interprets Moshe’s physical position as meaning that Moshe will be a teacher to b’nei Israel, not physically in between HaShem and Israel. Similarly, note that chazal interpret Moshe’s standing with HaShem as meaning a constant state of prophecy.

In 1:15, 1:16,1:18 The Rambam explains “Makom” “tzur” and “nigash” all referring to intellectual accomplishments.

In 1:21: “avor” is an expression of revelation.

In 1:28 “What they (the nobles of the children of Israel) perceived was therefore the materia prima, whose relation to God is distinctly mentioned, because it is the source of those of his creatures which are subject to genesis and destruction, and has been created by him. This subject also will be treated later on more fully.” Friedlander’s translation here is deficient, so check it out in the Kapach. In either case, this is a description of their understanding and perception.

In 1:54 “God promised to make him comprehend the nature of all things, their relation to each other, and the way they are governed by God both in reference to the universe as a whole and to each creature in particular. This knowledge is referred to when we are told of Moses," he is firmly established in all mine house" (Num. 12:7); that is, "his knowledge of all the creatures in My universe is correct and firmly established"; for false opinions are not firmly established.”

In 1:66 “Similarly we explain, "And the writing was the writing of God" (Exod. 32:16); the relation in which the writing stood to God has already been defined in the words "written with the finger of God" (ib. 31:18), and the meaning of this phrase is the same as that of "the work of thy fingers" (Ps. 8:4). this being said of the heavens; of the latter it has been stated distinctly that they were made by a word; comp. "By the word of the Lord were the heavens made" (ib. 33:6). “

In 2:33: “they learnt the truth of the principles contained in these two commandments in the same manner as Moses, and not through Moses. “

“Note it, and remember it, for it is impossible for any person to expound the revelation on Mount Sinai more fully than our Sages have done, since it is one of the secrets of the Law. It is very difficult to have a true conception of the events, for there has never been before, nor will there ever be again, anything like it. Note it.”

In 3:9 “His revelation in a thick cloud did not take place without any purpose, it was intended to indicate that we cannot comprehend Him on account of the dark body that surrounds us. It does not surround God, because He is incorporeal. A tradition is current among our people that the day of the revelation on Mount Sinai was misty, cloudy, and a little rainy.”

In 3:51: “One of these has attained so much knowledge, and has concentrated his thoughts to such an extent in the idea of God, that it could be said of him, “And he was with the Lord forty days,” etc. (Exod. 34:28); during that holy communion he could ask Him, answer Him, speak to Him, and be addressed by Him, enjoying beatitude in that which he had obtained to such a degree that “he did neither eat bread nor drink water” (ibid.); his intellectual energy was so predominant that all coarser functions of the body, especially those connected with the sense of touch, were in abeyance”

In 3:51 “we have attained not only the height of ordinary prophets, but of Moses, our Teacher, of whom Scripture relates: “And Moses alone shall come near before the Lord” (ibid. 34:28); “But as for thee, stand thou here by me””

Some of the main lessons of the account at Sinai are:
The Law comes from God.
God commands the law.
The law expresses the will of God
“Will of God” is a metaphor for things aligned with long-run success.
Our understanding of how the law works is subordinate to knowing that it does work.
The laws of nature are not subject to the will of man.
Optimal law is not an arbitrary social construct.
We learn from our ancestors.
The success of ancestors testifies to the veracity of their traditions.
Learning from others is the easiest path to knowledge.
The necessity to keep the law is based on fundamental human needs.
We receive the law via the intellect
The intellect is how we receive knowledge of God, which equates to knowledge of the universe.
Knowledge of the universe enables optimal behavior and policy.
Optimal policy yields better outcomes.
Helpful Details
Similarities between the Zohar and Guide for the Perplexed
The below ideas mark similarities between some ideas in the Guide and those in the Zohar. Because the Zohar is poetic, the similarity depends on the interpretation of the Zohar, and thus is also an implicit commentary on the Zohar. The Rambam does the same sort of thing a few times in the Guide, bringing a source from the Talmud or Midrash when its connection is based on an interpretation, so it would be appropriate to follow in kind. While I cite the exact words in the sources, most of the time the significance of those words can only really be understood when looking at the context of that sentence.

Employs metaphor for reading the Bible, and denigration of literal interpretation,,,,
The “place with me” on Sinai is a metaphor.
Angels don’t have bodies,
The history of mankind does not follow from a literal reading
The universe came from a single point, at a single point in time.,,,
The Six days of creation were not chronological.
The upper and lower waters were not divided on the second day.
Employs metaphor for interpretation of Rabbinic statements ,,
Emphasis on transcendence of God
We relate to and know God only through God’s actions.,
God has no attributes.
The “form” and “likeness” of God is not referring to Man’s physical body, but refers to the driver of his growth and behavior and intellect.
Name of God is used to describe things done by other things,
Emphasis on a cosmic system of agents that God uses to direct the world
Nature is perfect.
Nature never changes,
Interpretation of the planets and constellations as having a major role in Jewish thought and life
The universe is composed of concentric spheres
The universe is divided into three parts,,
Knowledge of the world and the body are essential to understand the depths of the Torah
Emphasis on understandable nature of the Mitzvot
“Tzedek” is balancing multiple needs
Emphasis on the rewards of observance in this world,
Veneration of the intellect, and a denigration of the heart
Adam’s intellect was perfect and complete before the sin ,,
The Etz HaDa’at is connected with pleasures, not knowledge
Logical derivation is of equal value of the prophecy of Moses
Tzelem, “form” of Man, is the intellect that drives his behavior. “d’mut” or likeness of man is his intellect
Greek philosophy is close to Jewish philosophy
The dark clouds in prophecy are a metaphor for evil
The afterlife is a function of knowledge
Providence is only associated with good.,
Providence is less on individuals.
Supporting Talmudic Statements
The below statements support the philosophy contained in the Guide

Shabbat 77b: “Why is the camel’s tail short? Because it eats thorns. He asked: Why is the ox’s tail long? Because it lives in a swamp and must fend off mosquitoes.” This implies that the features of animals are optimized for their survival.

Megillah 17b: “And why did they establish the blessing of Repentance after that of Understanding? Because the verse continues “And his heart will understand, and he will return, and be healed” This supports the Guide’s contention that observance of Torah is based on the intellect.

Bava Batra 25b: “Rabbi Yehoshua ben Levi said a person should always tilt south, because a person becomes wealthy through wisdom.” This supports the Guide’s proposition that the intellect drives success in this world. This, despite what we have in Rosh Hashanah 16b.

Tzura / Form
The Rabmam’s use of “tzura” or “form” as referring to the “tzelem” or image of God in 1:1 is not referring to a physical form. The Guide sheds light on what it means by “tzura” in 1:73 when it presents the rejected view of the Mutakallimin: “There does not exist a form which, as you believe, modifies the substance, and thus causes substances to be different from each other: this difference is exclusively effected by the accidents.”

This implies that the “tzura” form is the cause of observable behavior of a substance. So while the underlying matter of gold and iron might be the same, there is some “tzura” that causes each to change under various circumstances differently. So, with an animal, the “tzura” refers not to its physical form on the macro scale, but the elements of the animal that drive its growth and behavior. When the intellect drives a person’s behavior, their “tzura” is the intellect.

In 2:12, this interpretation makes the chapter eminently sensible. “There are, however, changes which are not connected with the combination of the elements, but concern only the forms of the things; they require likewise an efficient cause: there must exist a force that produces the various forms. This cause is incorporeal, for that which produces form must itself be abstract form, as has been shown in its proper place.”

What the chapter is saying is that drivers of behavior in matter are, essentially, natural law embedded in nature. Natural law being the Separate Intellect, and the Form being the drivers of behavior specific to that object.

See Ibn Tibbon’s definition.
Mikrim / Accidents
The word “accident” in Friedlander’s and others translation, used to translate “mikrim” means properties of an object that are not determined by its “form” or the fundamental nature of the object. For example, the “form” of gold will determine its color, melting point, density, conductivity and other properties. These properties will not change as long as the substance is gold. However, the location, shape, or trajectory of the object may vary independently of the “form.” These properties are referred to as “accidents” or mikrim. While mikri normally refers to random events, here it refers to something not determined by the form. This is similar to the English use of the word “random” in “random access memory.”
Sechel / Intellect

Sometimes causes are referred to as “Sechel” or intellect. This is clearest the introduction to pard 2, where we find “The existence of an infinite number of causes and effects is impossible, even if these were not magnitudes: if, e.g., one Intelligence were the cause of a second, the second the cause of a third, the third the cause of a fourth, and so on, the series could not be continued ad infinitum.”

The ancients viewed the intellect as the unobservable cause of human behavior. Natural forces function in a similar way, so they are called “Intelligences” but a modern reader would call them “forces.” Indeed, angels in the Guide are referred to as natural forces and intelligences. See Ibn Tibbon’s definition.

The Rambam rejects the notion that the Spheres or intelligences have intellects or a “soul” similar to that of ours or animals in 2:4, referring the reader to the observed behavior of the spheres.
The Brain as the seat of the intellect
In 2:36 “The substance of the brain must from the very beginning be in the most perfect condition as regards purity of matter, composition of its different parts, size and position: no part of his body must suffer from ill-health”

3:23: “The nerves are the organs of sensation and motion…these nerves originate in the brain.”

3:46 “wine supports best the vital faculty, whose centre is the heart: music is most agreeable to the psychic faculty, the source of which is in the brain.”

The Rambam knew that the brain, not the heart, was the seat of the intellect, and therefore is essential for prophecy. In addition, he was aware that the brain controlled sensation and locomotion.
Logic in the Guide
Occam’s Razor
The Guide notes that a simple explanation is preferable to a complicated one. This implicitly endorses Occam’s Razor, and may explain why the Rambam’s books on law are generally simpler and more sensible than alternative approaches to interpreting the Talmud.

2:11 “He will, besides, endeavour to find such an hypothesis which would require the least complicated motion and the least number of spheres”
Bayesian Thinking
2:23 “In comparing the objections raised against one theory with those raised against the opposite theory, in order to decide in favour of the least objectionable, we must not consider the number of the objections, but the degree of improbability and of deviation from real facts[this is the likelihood function] [pointed out by the objections]; for one objection may sometimes have more weight than a thousand others. But the comparison cannot be trustworthy unless the two theories be considered with the same interest, and if you are predisposed in favour of one of them,” [This is the prior]
Will vs. Wisdom
Something done with “wisdom” has a function beyond the thing itself. Something done with “will” alone has no designed function. This is the difference between the two, as implied in 3:26, and contextually in other places. In 3:26 “...the actions of God are the result of His wisdom, or only of His will without being intended for any purpose whatever” The perfect function of nature and the functional design of animal bodies indicates wisdom. The random order of stars indicates will.
Order of the Guide
Understanding the order of the Guide is subordinate to understanding the text of the Guide. It was not written so that everything needed to understand a chapter is contained in the preceding chapters. Rather, the proper understanding comes from integrating ideas dispersed through the work.
Commentaries on the Guide
Read the old commentaries on the Guide: Narboni, Abarbanel, Shem Tov, Efodi, and Kreskas. Often neglected, these commentaries present an authentic interpretation of the cosmology of the time, and are bolder in their willingness to interpret the Guide as distinct from philosophies of religion that are less intellectual and scientific.
The Mishneh Torah & The Guide
All four basic concepts in the Guide can be found implicitly in the Mishneh Torah. The importance of interpretation of the Bible with metaphor is found in Yesodei HaTorah, 1:9 and 2:4. The Transcendence of God is in Yesodei HaTorah 1:8, and implicit mention of attributes of action in the last sentence in 1:10 and 2:2. The order of creation is emphasized in chapters 2 and 3, which describe in detail how God runs the world. The primacy of the intellect is implied in Hilchot Deot, where proper behavior is linked to being a Chacham in 1:4, and in Hilchot Teshuva, where wisdom is consistently coupled with virtue and good behavior, and Hilchot Yesodei HaTorah where prophecy is connected with the intellect. The Mishneh Torah’s system does not use miracles or Olam Haba to answer key questions of faith or providence, recommend following the heart or rejecting reason in favor of faith, or talk about a direct relationship with God.

Discrepancies between the Guide for the Perplexed and the Mishneh Torah should generally be resolved by interpretation of the Mishneh Torah with use of metaphor. We can see that the Rambam uses terms and expressions that he later rejects. For example, in Yesodei HaTorah 5:4 The Rambam states about an evil person “and will descend to the lowest levels of Gehinnom.” Yet, later in Hilchot Teshuva 8:5, the Rambam notes that descriptions of Gehinnom are metaphors for being cut off. An exception to the above rule may be in 3:51, where Hilchot Deot 3:1 presents a clearer and more practical interpretation of “knowing God” in our actions than parts of 3:51.
A Brief Commentary on Hilchot Yesodei Hatorah:
1:1: This is the definition of God.
Note the absence of creation. We are not required to know it, especially because we can’t prove it. But faith in ongoing maintenance is required.
Know: because it can be proved. The english “faith” does not appropriately translate into “emuna”
This echoes the first verse in the Torah, which defines God as the creator of haven and hearth
It doesn’t matter what this thing is, a person has fulfilled his mitzvah if he knows it exists. Even if he thinks it’s “pure chaos” or whatever his imagination posits.
This is the foundation of wisdom, because it implies a universal natural law. This is the foundation of science.
1:2: This is the proof of God’s existence in a sentence. In the Guide, the Rambam states that all Israel knew the proof of God’s existence. Thus, such a proof must be incredibly simple.
1:6: The Rambam refers to God as a “davar” a “thing”, not a person. He states in 2:10 that God has no life or knowledge like we have.
1:10, 2:1: The Rambam refers to the “essence” or “atzmut” of God as “Amitato” and the Sechel Nivdal, the separate intelligences by clothes that are distinct from observed behavior. The Rambam leaves out discussion attributes of action until the second chapter, where an emotional relationship with God is discussed. Negative attributes are good to redirect the mind from the imagined truth. Attributes of action are what lead to an understood relationship with the creator.
2:3: The Rambam emphasizes the division of the world into three, as described in the Guide. Note how the creation of the world in six days, and mention of miracles is missing. Angels are the forces that drive the planets. Note how the hierarchy of angels excludes the “separate intelligences” as they are in the same place as the Throne of Glory.
Chapters 3 & 4: God runs the world through natural laws and systems that are fixed. The sun and moon move approximately one degree per day relative to the fixed stars. Axial precession moves approximately one degree in 70 years. Thus, the Mishneh Torah has one of the best estimations for Axial precession at its time. The descriptions of the stars and angels knowing the world and knowing God is a metaphor for their incorporation of information of all things in their behavior and their perfect performance.
4:13: The Rambam notes that the details of halacha are “The great good that the Holy One influenced to settle this world, so that we can inherit Olam Haba.” This echoes the Rambam’s contention in 3:27 that the point of mitzvot in the first order is the improvement of quality of life in this world. The description of Ma’aseh Bereshit as a higher level echoes the parable of the city in 3:51, where natural law enables a deeper entrance into the Chambers of the King than the Torah itself.
Chapter 4: The “neshama” is the physical capability of Man to learn. The “Tzura” that lives eternally are the things that a person has learned. Because they are true understandings of how the world works, they are knowledge of God. Note in Hilchot Teshuva, the Rambam connects knowledge of things to the element of a person that lives eternally. Because the Rambam holds that there is a unity between the knower, the knowledge and the known, this knowing truths makes a person unified with them. Because the knowledge is effectively knowing God by attributes of action, it is considered coming from and ultimately unified with God. The place of Olam Haba would, therefore, be in the Separate Intelligences, which includes all universal truths.
Chapter 5: Kiddush Hashem. The reason for Kiddush Hashem is:
We need to be dedicated to things beyond ourselves, and advertise it. This is a fundamental concept of Judaism, as the Evil Son fails to get it. Israel is identified with the name of God.
There is also a strategy here, whereby Jews are less likely to be abused when they group together.
The leniency in the case of Shimon BenBichri implies we can violate the 3 Sins for the larger community, which is the same permit given to Esther to go into Achashverosh’s room willingly, as described in Tractate Megillah, and Yael and the daughters of Lot were permitted as well, as in Nazir 23b. The Rambam may permit a person to volunteer him or herself in such cases, and Esther may again exemplify, granted that there be no repeated game or royal decree.
Chapter 6: Kiddush Hashem.
The reason it’s in Yesodei HaTorah: Respecting the Name reinforces the idea that people need to know about, love, and respect God itself. This concept is so fundamental that it belongs in Yesodei HaTorah.
Chapters 7-9: Prophesy is the intellectual interpretation of a dream or vision. Because no violation of natural law must be used, we do not need faith in Chidush HaOlam to have faith in prophecy. Rather, the concept of Chidush HaOlam is the evolution and permanent progression of history.
Chapter 10: Eternity of the Torah.
Just as the laws of nature never change, the Torah never changes. The will of God is a metaphor for behaviors that lead to success, and those behaviors are, in large part, a function of the laws of nature, the will of God cannot change any more than the laws of nature themselves.What holds nature consistent is transcendent of it, and, therefore, transcendent of time, so nature itself can never change. Thus, there is a connection between the covenant between heaven and earth, and the covenant between God and the righteous. See the Zohar in the beginning of Noach.
Moshe is the conduit of this will. As implied in the Guide, there is a secret regarding the prophecy of Moshe and the revelation at Sinai. Consider the many Zohars that describe Moshe in fantastic terms. And consider the statement that the Neshamot of all the tzadikim learning Torah have part from the Neshama of Moshe.
A Brief Commentary on Hilchot Deot:
Deot refers to behaviors, not feelings.
The goal of optimal behavior is long run broad success.
1:4 “Sages instructed man to evaluate his traits, to calculate them and to direct them along the middle path, so that he will be sound of body.”
1:7 “One who follows this path brings benefit and blessing to himself”
Chapter 1: The actions of God, the laws of nature, are perfectly balanced for the development of life. Just as we see the wisdom of God through the perfect balance of creation that is optimized for life, so too, a person is considered wise when his actions are optimally balanced for life.
Just as Deot has a clear function, which is for the benefit of general welfare, so too all mitzvot promote general welfare. The reason Deot is after Yesodei HaTorah is because they are the general guidance for behavior that the rest of the mitzvot help with. Similar to how the Yesodei HaTorah are the general guidelines for what to think, Hilchot Deot are guidelines on what to do.
2:1: The notion that people with self-destructive behaviors are sick and need to defer to other people to fix them is a fundamental concept in the Torah. The economic incentives given to people to avoid theft essentially fixes people who would be inclined to steal. Additionally, the ritual mitzvot that teaches people the proper path performs the same function.
Deot creates a framework for psychological improvement. First, a framework for optimal behavior must be developed and completely accepted. Second, misalignment between feelings, actions, and the ideal are identified. Third, the person must seek out those who can advise him on actions that are not objectively optimal, but will help the patient gain alignment. Fourth, the patient practices the behaviors and builds emotional and habitual resilience. After this process is complete, reflection on the past will lead to regret and the person can then work on Teshuva to minimize the impact of past behavior.
3:1: The prohibition of rejecting pleasures from this world is limited to limiting pleasures for the sake of heaven. In other words, a person is forbidden to refuse pleasures because they think that enjoyment itself is bad, would reduce their lot in the world to come, or is hated by God. There are other reasons to reduce consumption and pleasure in this world, but that is not one of them. A person’s religious life must be sustainable emotionally and physically.
7:7 See the end of the Halacha: “And this is the correct disposition that allows that civilization be possible through it and commerce of people, one with the other.“ The Rambam sees the purpose of good deot, or midot, ethical behavior, as serving the economic prosperity and practical peace of the society. Rather than being inherently good or self-destructive, as in other philosophies, the Rambam sees ethical behavior as serving a practical good. This conforms with the view expressed in the Guide that the goal of mitzvot is economic.
A Brief Commentary on Hilchot Teshuva:
Kapara, atonement is about muting the negative repercussions of sin. The reason why this removes punishment is because punishment is an effect of sin.
The process of how to stop sinning isn’t discussed in Hilchot Teshuva, because this is already discussed in Hilchot Deot 2:2. Thus, Hilchot Teshuva focuses not in improving behavior, but minimizing the negative impact of what one has already done.
Hilchot Teshuva follows a progression from a technical approach to Judaism, where teshuva is a verbal act to avoid punishment, to describing worship out of pure love. This follows the path of teshuva. One should first go to the right path out of fear of punishment or self destruction. Then, a person should aim to purify their mind, so they are motivated by a broad mindset.
1:2 Symbolic mitzvot can be atoned for when a person accomplishes the same learning. Punishment on the courts indicates the influence of that sin on others, because the function of punishment is to deter others. Karet, being cut off from the nation, is a social punishment, and also indicates influence on others. Thus, there is a connection between the effect on society and difficulty of attaining atonement.
1:3 As described by Rav Soloveitchik, Tahara, purity is the removal of the effects of the sin from their internal world. As seen in Deot and the Guide, sin can be habit forming. The cleansing of the mind is referred to as being “before God.”
1:4 There is a connection between kiddush hashem, sanctification of the name, and death. In Yesodei HaTorah, we see that when someone dies rather than sin, this can be a kiddush hashem. Here, we see that only death can atone for a chillul hashem, desecration of the name. If we posit that the point of dying is to highlight an ontic unity between us and the broader universe, and the concept of chilul hashem is that it advertises a division, then as long as the person lives an independent life, they continue the message of their desecration. Thus, only death, which removes their independence, can atone.
2:1: This paragraph contradicts 1:3, because 1:3 does not present any conditions beyond his mindset. Teshuva is about covering the effects of sin, and this can happen to various degrees. If a person regrets, then there is part of them that is clear of the effects of sin. If a person doesn’t repeat, then the memory of the sin is not dominating their behavior anymore. At this point, they are pure of sin. However, they still have not prevented the sin from affecting others, from affecting their body, or have made whole past effects.
2:2: Teshuva happens because of learning. He must learn how the sin damages himself, until he stops, doesn’t want to continue, and even regrets it because of an understanding of the costs.
2:5: Publishing return from interpersonal sins brings peace, because he is advertising peaceful intentions. If a person sins to God and survives, this advertises a gap in divine justice.
2:8: The word “aval” here means “it is true” such as in אֲבָל֮ אֲשֵׁמִ֣ים ׀ אֲנַחְנוּ֮ and as many times in the tosefta.
2:11: Ten Men represent all of Israel, because they are able to bring the entire world to teshuva, just as the spies changed the minds of Israel overnight. Because the individual is “gathered unto his nations” the only way to halt the impact of his sin is to pay it to the nation of Israel.
3:1: Note how cities and countries are judged in groups. This corresponds with the Guide’s supposition in 3:48 and elsewhere that Ir Nidachat is judged based on the city, not on the individual level. This also corresponds with the Rambam’s implicit explanation of Job and hashgacha.
3:1-5: While the Rambam describes judgment as made on Rosh HaShana, and the first two sins being forgiven, this perspective is not the one the Rambam advises we keep in mind. Although they are true, keeping that in mind will not optimize behavior.
3:8: In the Guide, Epicurios is associated with belief in a chaotic world. If the world is chaotic, there can be no reward or punishment for good or bad behavior. This is what the Rambam means by “the Creator is not aware of the deeds of men.” God’s “awareness” is a metaphor for purposeful action. Similarly, if the world is chaotic, we cannot know the way of God, which eliminates the possibility for prophecy. Moses is singled out because of the secrets connected with Torat Moshe.
3:6-14: How can a person forfeit his portion in the world to come by failure in something not included in the 613 mitzvot? According to the Rambam, the mitzvot have a function. Someone who takes actions to disturb the function of mitzvot will lose his portion even if his actions are not included precisely in the listed mitzvot.
3:6-14: Note here how most, if not all, of these things harm society. This is consonant with the Rambam’s position that the first goal of mitzvot is the perfection of society. Note also, that if ruining the culture of torah destroys one’s portion in the world to come, that implies that the center of earning a portion of Olam Haba is positive impact on the society.
5: Compare the Rambam’s descriptions here with his descriptions in the Guide on providence and divine knowledge, particularly paying attention to 3:21. The Rambam’s answer here would be that the world is run algorithmically, with freedom of action for people. Because God’s knowledge of the world is an attribute of action, God’s knowledge of the universe is limited to the way God runs the world, which is to the algorithmic rules, or “tzurot” or forms.
8:1 Why is Olam Haba, the world to come, discussed here and not in Yesodei Torah? Because the difference that atonement makes is in Olam Haba. Despite the commentaries’ objections, Rambam does not believe in “Gehinnom” as a place where souls are punished. We see this also in 8:5, where the Rambam interprets various worlds for Gehinnom as metaphor. In the 10th chapter, the Rambam does not mention the threat of Gehinnom as a way to motivate children and the ignorant.
8:3 Only the pure information in our minds lives forever. This is the “acquired intellect.” Our intellectual faculty does not live forever. The truth is eternal and ubiquitous, by learning it, we attach ourselves to it. If we imagine that pleasure we experience stems from grasping a kernel of eternity, then the pleasure of living eternally and ubiquitously must be so much greater. This raises a question of how admission to Olam Haba can be a holistic decision based on the sum total of a man’s actions in this world, as Maimonides implies elsewhere.
If Olam Haba is the place of the intellect, it is a question as to how a person can be granted entry to this place based on virtuous behavior, as the Rambam states.
8:3 Olam Haba is greater than anything in this world, yet the path to it is by improving this world.
9:2 The function of mitzvot within nature is implied in Hilchot Teshuva that in the days of the Messiah, nature will not change. Thus, observance of the commandments cannot be dysfunctional in any way that would require a miracle.
The Rambam gives two places to visualize the earning of rewards. First, Olam Haba, which is non-physical but personal and relatively selfish. The second, Moshiach, is physical, but shared by the entire Jewish nation. Each visualization has its advantages, and disadvantages. Yet, in the 10th chapter, the Rambam will reject both of these goals of Mitzvah performance as less than ideal in favor of doing good out of “love.”
10:1 In Rav Soloveitchik’s philosophy, and in Tanya, love is based on identification as an ontic unity. In other words, when we view ourselves as one with the creator, and the universe in entirety. When one experiences this perspective, he will be drawn to keep mitzvot out of pure intention. Identity with the broader community in a way that drives intrinsically motivated behavior is observable in many forms, not least soldiers who are willing to risk their lives for their country.
10:2 What does it mean “to do truth?” The truth here is what the Rambam talks about in Hilchot Yesodei HaTorah 1:4, that only God is “emet.” There it means that only God exists inherently and infinitely. Thus, taking a note from the first chapter of Hilchot Deot, where the Rambam establishes that walking in the way of God is pursuing a path that leads to permanence, doing truth means walking this path that leads to establishment of permanent life and good.
10.4 The use of the expression “רָז זֶה”, or “this secret”, is an allusion to the only time this phrase is used in the Talmud. The statement in Tractate Shabbat 88a, that by accepting the Torah before Israel knew its contents, Israel was implementing a secret. Israel was unaware not only of the requirements of the Torah, but also the rewards, and thus, this acceptance was out of love.