Vaykira is about maintaining closeness to God through physical and spiritual cleansing of wrongdoing by means of sacrifice.
[See Jacob Milgrom for more; R Yitz Greenberg also explains his views here: https://www.sefaria.org/sheets/307982?lang=bi]
Here, we'll do a quick text study of the text in parashat Vaykira as it discusses the instances in which individuals have to make restitution.
(א) וְנֶ֣פֶשׁ כִּֽי־תֶחֱטָ֗א וְשָֽׁמְעָה֙ ק֣וֹל אָלָ֔ה וְה֣וּא עֵ֔ד א֥וֹ רָאָ֖ה א֣וֹ יָדָ֑ע אִם־ל֥וֹא יַגִּ֖יד וְנָשָׂ֥א עֲוֺנֽוֹ׃ (ב) א֣וֹ נֶ֗פֶשׁ אֲשֶׁ֣ר תִּגַּע֮ בְּכׇל־דָּבָ֣ר טָמֵא֒ אוֹ֩ בְנִבְלַ֨ת חַיָּ֜ה טְמֵאָ֗ה א֚וֹ בְּנִבְלַת֙ בְּהֵמָ֣ה טְמֵאָ֔ה א֕וֹ בְּנִבְלַ֖ת שֶׁ֣רֶץ טָמֵ֑א וְנֶעְלַ֣ם מִמֶּ֔נּוּ וְה֥וּא טָמֵ֖א וְאָשֵֽׁם׃ (ג) א֣וֹ כִ֤י יִגַּע֙ בְּטֻמְאַ֣ת אָדָ֔ם לְכֹל֙ טֻמְאָת֔וֹ אֲשֶׁ֥ר יִטְמָ֖א בָּ֑הּ וְנֶעְלַ֣ם מִמֶּ֔נּוּ וְה֥וּא יָדַ֖ע וְאָשֵֽׁם׃ (ד) א֣וֹ נֶ֡פֶשׁ כִּ֣י תִשָּׁבַע֩ לְבַטֵּ֨א בִשְׂפָתַ֜יִם לְהָרַ֣ע ׀ א֣וֹ לְהֵיטִ֗יב לְ֠כֹ֠ל אֲשֶׁ֨ר יְבַטֵּ֧א הָאָדָ֛ם בִּשְׁבֻעָ֖ה וְנֶעְלַ֣ם מִמֶּ֑נּוּ וְהוּא־יָדַ֥ע וְאָשֵׁ֖ם לְאַחַ֥ת מֵאֵֽלֶּה׃ (ה) וְהָיָ֥ה כִֽי־יֶאְשַׁ֖ם לְאַחַ֣ת מֵאֵ֑לֶּה וְהִ֨תְוַדָּ֔ה אֲשֶׁ֥ר חָטָ֖א עָלֶֽיהָ׃
(1) If a person incurs guilt—When one has heard a public imprecation but (although able to testify as having either seen or learned of the matter) has not given information and thus is subject to punishment; (2) Or when a person touches any impure thing (be it the carcass of an impure beast or the carcass of impure cattle or the carcass of an impure creeping thing) and the fact has escaped notice, and then, being impure, that person realizes guilt; (3) Or when one touches human impurity (any such impurity whereby someone becomes impure) and, though having known about it, the fact has escaped notice, but later that person realizes guilt; (4) Or when a person utters an oath to bad or good purpose (whatever a human being may utter in an oath) and, though having known about it, the fact has escaped notice, but later that person realizes guilt in any of these matters— (5) upon realizing guilt in any of these matters, one shall confess having sinned in that way.
Impurity here refers to something that is ritually unclean-- perhaps its skin is displaying tzarat/a scale disease, or, for humans, it could be referring to a menstruating woman or person, or someone who had a seminal emission and has not cleansed themselves ritually.
Q: What is this combination of things-- is there a combination of elements that groups them together?
- is it the input or the outcome?
- is the impact felt only individually or on a collective level?
Q: What does it mean for someone to "realize their guilt"?
וְהֵבִ֣יא אֶת־אֲשָׁמ֣וֹ לַיהוה עַ֣ל חַטָּאתוֹ֩ אֲשֶׁ֨ר חָטָ֜א נְקֵבָ֨ה מִן־הַצֹּ֥אן כִּשְׂבָּ֛ה אֽוֹ־שְׂעִירַ֥ת עִזִּ֖ים לְחַטָּ֑את וְכִפֶּ֥ר עָלָ֛יו הַכֹּהֵ֖ן מֵחַטָּאתֽוֹ׃ וְאִם־לֹ֨א תַגִּ֣יעַ יָדוֹ֮ דֵּ֣י שֶׂה֒ וְהֵבִ֨יא אֶת־אֲשָׁמ֜וֹ אֲשֶׁ֣ר חָטָ֗א שְׁתֵּ֥י תֹרִ֛ים אֽוֹ־שְׁנֵ֥י בְנֵֽי־יוֹנָ֖ה לַֽיהוה אֶחָ֥ד לְחַטָּ֖את וְאֶחָ֥ד לְעֹלָֽה׃
And they shall bring as a penalty to GOD, for the sin of which they are guilty, a female from the flock—sheep or goat—as a purgation offering; and the priest shall make expiation for the sin, on their behalf. But if their means do not suffice for a sheep, they shall bring to GOD, as the penalty for that of which they are guilty, two turtledoves or two pigeons—one for a purgation offering and the other for a burnt offering.
וְאִם־לֹא֩ תַשִּׂ֨יג יָד֜וֹ לִשְׁתֵּ֣י תֹרִ֗ים אוֹ֮ לִשְׁנֵ֣י בְנֵי־יוֹנָה֒ וְהֵבִ֨יא אֶת־קׇרְבָּנ֜וֹ אֲשֶׁ֣ר חָטָ֗א עֲשִׂירִ֧ת הָאֵפָ֛ה סֹ֖לֶת לְחַטָּ֑את לֹא־יָשִׂ֨ים עָלֶ֜יהָ שֶׁ֗מֶן וְלֹא־יִתֵּ֤ן עָלֶ֙יהָ֙ לְבֹנָ֔ה כִּ֥י חַטָּ֖את הִֽוא׃
And if their means do not suffice for two turtledoves or two pigeons, they shall bring as an offering for that of which they are guilty a tenth of an ephah of choice flour for a purgation offering; they shall not add oil to it or lay frankincense on it, for it is a purgation offering.
Q: How might the different tiers for financial means of offerings impact the penitent?
Q: Answer the same question sitting at the table of Israelite society at the time (Ancient Near East)- in that time period, not from your modern perspective.
נֶ֚פֶשׁ כִּ֣י תֶחֱטָ֔א וּמָעֲלָ֥ה מַ֖עַל בַּיהוה וְכִחֵ֨שׁ בַּעֲמִית֜וֹ בְּפִקָּד֗וֹן אֽוֹ־בִתְשׂ֤וּמֶת יָד֙ א֣וֹ בְגָזֵ֔ל א֖וֹ עָשַׁ֥ק אֶת־עֲמִיתֽוֹ׃ אֽוֹ־מָצָ֧א אֲבֵדָ֛ה וְכִ֥חֶשׁ בָּ֖הּ וְנִשְׁבַּ֣ע עַל־שָׁ֑קֶר עַל־אַחַ֗ת מִכֹּ֛ל אֲשֶׁר־יַעֲשֶׂ֥ה הָאָדָ֖ם לַחֲטֹ֥א בָהֵֽנָּה׃ וְהָיָה֮ כִּֽי־יֶחֱטָ֣א וְאָשֵׁם֒ וְהֵשִׁ֨יב אֶת־הַגְּזֵלָ֜ה אֲשֶׁ֣ר גָּזָ֗ל א֤וֹ אֶת־הָעֹ֙שֶׁק֙ אֲשֶׁ֣ר עָשָׁ֔ק א֚וֹ אֶת־הַפִּקָּד֔וֹן אֲשֶׁ֥ר הׇפְקַ֖ד אִתּ֑וֹ א֥וֹ אֶת־הָאֲבֵדָ֖ה אֲשֶׁ֥ר מָצָֽא׃ א֠וֹ מִכֹּ֞ל אֲשֶׁר־יִשָּׁבַ֣ע עָלָיו֮ לַשֶּׁ֒קֶר֒ וְשִׁלַּ֤ם אֹתוֹ֙ בְּרֹאשׁ֔וֹ וַחֲמִשִׁתָ֖יו יֹסֵ֣ף עָלָ֑יו לַאֲשֶׁ֨ר ה֥וּא ל֛וֹ יִתְּנֶ֖נּוּ בְּי֥וֹם אַשְׁמָתֽוֹ׃
When a person sins and commits a trespass against GOD—by dealing deceitfully with another in the matter of a deposit or a pledge, or through robbery, or by defrauding another, or by finding something lost and lying about it; if they swear falsely regarding any one of the various things that a person may do and sin thereby— when they have thus sinned and, realizing their guilt, would restore either that which was gotten through robbery or fraud, or the entrusted deposit, or the lost thing that was found, or anything else about which they swore falsely, they shall repay the principal amount and add a fifth part to it. It shall be paid to its owner upon realizing that guilt.
Q: In what ways are these things "trespasses against God"?
Q: Is there another way you might categorize these wrongdoings?
וְאֶת־אֲשָׁמ֥וֹ יָבִ֖יא לַיהוה אַ֣יִל תָּמִ֧ים מִן־הַצֹּ֛אן בְּעֶרְכְּךָ֥ לְאָשָׁ֖ם אֶל־הַכֹּהֵֽן׃ וְכִפֶּ֨ר עָלָ֧יו הַכֹּהֵ֛ן לִפְנֵ֥י יהוה וְנִסְלַ֣ח ל֑וֹ עַל־אַחַ֛ת מִכֹּ֥ל אֲשֶֽׁר־יַעֲשֶׂ֖ה לְאַשְׁמָ֥ה בָֽהּ׃ {פ}
Then [the sinner] shall bring to the priest, as a penalty to GOD, a ram without blemish from the flock, or the equivalent, as a reparation offering. The priest shall make expiation before GOD on their behalf—and they shall be forgiven for whatever was done to draw blame thereby.
Q: Sitting at our modern table, what can we learn from these practices?
bonus rabbinic content
והיה כי יחטא ואשם. פירש"י כשיכיר בעצמו לשוב בתשובה כו' כי כל חוטא לעולם לא ישים אשם נפשו ודרך איש ישר בעיניו כי הוא מורה לעצמו היתר בכל דרכיו לומר שזה חייב לו ממקום אחר לפי דמיונו, או נדמה לו כי עשה לו איזו עול ע"כ הוא מעכב פקדונו, לפיכך ביום שישים אשם בנפשו ויכיר טעותו וכי לא טוב עשה בעמיו זה"ש ואשם. שיאשים את עצמו ומורה גם הוא יורה איסור לעצמו ע"י שיכיר בחטאיו ואז ודאי יתן אל לבו לשוב בתשובה, והשיב את הגזילה אשר גזל. לא שישלם דמי הגזילה אלא את אשר גזל בעינו. ושילם אותו בראשו וגו'. כי הקב"ה מוותר על שלו ואינו מקפיד אם יאחר זמן הבאת איל אשמו ליהוה ע"כ צוה לו להקדים תשלומין לאדם ליתן לו בראש את כל שלו ואח"כ יביא אשמו על השבועה וחמשיתיו יוסף עליו. על שהיו מעותיו בטלים אצלו.
It shall be that when he [realizes his] sin and incurs guilt. No sinner considers himself guilty, for every man thinks he is doing the right thing. This is because he rationalizes his actions, imagining that the other fellow owes him money for some reason, or has wronged him in some other dealings, and he decides he has a right to take what was deposited by him for safe-keeping. Therefore, the Torah calls it ואשם — meaning, when he realizes his error and that he has wronged his fellow man and now recognizes he is guilty. He will then certainly set his heart on repentance and return the stolen object. He should not simply pay for the object, but rather should return the object itself.
“Restore that which he got through robbery or fraud” [5:23]. Bahya asks a question. Why did it have to say, “that he stole,” that he should return the robbery that he had stolen, but it says he should return that which he stole? The explanation is that this teaches us that he must return what he stole. However, if he wants to return money, he should not do this. The Talmud says in [tractate] Baba Kama. If a person has stolen a beam and had built it into his house, he is obligated to tear down the whole house and take out the beam in order to return it. However, he cannot pay money for the beam; that does not help. However, the House of Hillel says that they made a regulation that one should accept money for the beam, expecting that the person would quickly repent. He should not say, I will gladly return the beam, but it is difficult to tear down the whole house. Therefore, one should accept money for the beam. It is known that there are two types of sins. One is that the person commits sins against the Holy One; he does this to his own soul. The other one are the sins that he does to his friend. He denigrates or assaults him. He only sins against a person. However, the one who steals, also sins against God. Therefore, the sin is more severe than all the other sins in the world. The Flood was caused for no other reason than stealing. Ezekiel had punished Israel for their sins. He said: you have spilled blood and have shamed My holiness, and have engaged in slander and taken usury. You have forgotten Me and at the very end says, you have stolen. Therefore, I want to kill you. Here it is heard that God kills and punishes the person because of stealing.