The Seven Days of Creation (with Commentary)

(1) When God began to create*When God began to create Others “In the beginning God created.” heaven and earth— (2) the earth being unformed and void, with darkness over the surface of the deep and a wind from*a wind from Others “the spirit of.” God sweeping over the water— (3) God said, “Let there be light”; and there was light. (4) God saw that the light was good, and God separated the light from the darkness. (5) God called the light Day and called the darkness Night. And there was evening and there was morning, a first day.*a first day Others “one day.” (6) God said, “Let there be an expanse in the midst of the water, that it may separate water from water.” (7) God made the expanse, and it separated the water which was below the expanse from the water which was above the expanse. And it was so. (8) God called the expanse Sky. And there was evening and there was morning, a second day. (9) God said, “Let the water below the sky be gathered into one area, that the dry land may appear.” And it was so. (10) God called the dry land Earth and called the gathering of waters Seas. And God saw that this was good. (11) And God said, “Let the earth sprout vegetation: seed-bearing plants, fruit trees of every kind on earth that bear fruit with the seed in it.” And it was so. (12) The earth brought forth vegetation: seed-bearing plants of every kind, and trees of every kind bearing fruit with the seed in it. And God saw that this was good. (13) And there was evening and there was morning, a third day. (14) God said, “Let there be lights in the expanse of the sky to separate day from night; they shall serve as signs for the set times—the days and the years; (15) and they shall serve as lights in the expanse of the sky to shine upon the earth.” And it was so. (16) God made the two great lights, the greater light to dominate the day and the lesser light to dominate the night, and the stars. (17) And God set them in the expanse of the sky to shine upon the earth, (18) to dominate the day and the night, and to separate light from darkness. And God saw that this was good. (19) And there was evening and there was morning, a fourth day. (20) God said, “Let the waters bring forth swarms of living creatures, and birds that fly above the earth across the expanse of the sky.” (21) God created the great sea monsters, and all the living creatures of every kind that creep, which the waters brought forth in swarms, and all the winged birds of every kind. And God saw that this was good. (22) God blessed them, saying, “Be fertile and increase, fill the waters in the seas, and let the birds increase on the earth.” (23) And there was evening and there was morning, a fifth day. (24) God said, “Let the earth bring forth every kind of living creature: cattle, creeping things, and wild beasts of every kind.” And it was so. (25) God made wild beasts of every kind and cattle of every kind, and all kinds of creeping things of the earth. And God saw that this was good. (26) And God said, “Let us make humankind in our image, after our likeness. They shall rule the fish of the sea, the birds of the sky, the cattle, the whole earth, and all the creeping things that creep on earth.” (27) And God created humankind in the divine image,creating it in the image of God—creating them male and female. (28) God blessed them and God said to them, “Be fertile and increase, fill the earth and master it; and rule the fish of the sea, the birds of the sky, and all the living things that creep on earth.” (29) God said, “See, I give you every seed-bearing plant that is upon all the earth, and every tree that has seed-bearing fruit; they shall be yours for food. (30) And to all the animals on land, to all the birds of the sky, and to everything that creeps on earth, in which there is the breath of life, [I give] all the green plants for food.” And it was so. (31) And God saw all that had been made, and found it very good. And there was evening and there was morning, the sixth day. (1) The heaven and the earth were finished, and all their array. (2) On the seventh day God finished the work that had been undertaken: [God] ceased*ceased Or “rested.” on the seventh day from doing any of the work. (3) And God blessed the seventh day and declared it holy—having ceased on it from all the work of creation that God had done.

(1) בראשית IN THE BEGINNING — Rabbi Isaac said: The Torah which is the Law book of Israel should have commenced with the verse (Exodus 12:2) “This month shall be unto you the first of the months” which is the first commandment given to Israel. What is the reason, then, that it commences with the account of the Creation? Because of the thought expressed in the text (Psalms 111:6) “He declared to His people the strength of His works (i.e. He gave an account of the work of Creation), in order that He might give them the heritage of the nations.” For should the peoples of the world say to Israel, “You are robbers, because you took by force the lands of the seven nations of Canaan”, Israel may reply to them, “All the earth belongs to the Holy One, blessed be He; He created it and gave it to whom He pleased. When He willed He gave it to them, and when He willed He took it from them and gave it to us” (Yalkut Shimoni on Torah 187).,בראשית ברא IN THE BEGINNING GOD CREATED — This verse calls aloud for explanation in the manner that our Rabbis explained it: God created the world for the sake of the Torah which is called (Proverbs 8:22) “The beginning (ראשית) of His (God’s) way”, and for the sake of Israel who are called (Jeremiah 2:3) “The beginning (ראשית) of His (God’s) increase’’. If, however, you wish to explain it in its plain sense, explain it thus: At the beginning of the Creation of heaven and earth when the earth was without form and void and there was darkness, God said, “Let there be light”. The text does not intend to point out the order of the acts of Creation — to state that these (heaven and earth) were created first; for if it intended to point this out, it should have written 'בראשונה ברא את השמים וגו “At first God created etc.” And for this reason: Because, wherever the word ראשית occurs in Scripture, it is in the construct state. E. g., (Jeremiah 26:1) “In the beginning of (בראשית) the reign of Jehoiakim”; (Genesis 10:10) “The beginning of (ראשית) his kingdom”; (Deuteronomy 18:4) “The first fruit of (ראשית) thy corn.” Similarly here you must translate בראשית ברא אלהים as though it read בראשית ברוא, at the beginning of God’s creating. A similar grammatical construction (of a noun in construct followed by a verb) is: (Hosea 1:2) תחלת דבר ה' בהושע, which is as much as to say, “At the beginning of God’s speaking through Hosea, the Lord said to Hosea.” Should you, however, insist that it does actually intend to point out that these (heaven and earth) were created first, and that the meaning is, “At the beginning of everything He created these, admitting therefore that the word בראשית is in the construct state and explaining the omission of a word signifying “everything” by saying that you have texts which are elliptical, omitting a word, as for example (Job 3:10) “Because it shut not up the doors of my mother’s womb” where it does not explicitly explain who it was that closed the womb; and (Isaiah 8:4) “He shall take away the spoil of Samaria” without explaining who shall take it away; and (Amos 6:12) “Doth he plough with oxen," and it does not explicitly state, “Doth a man plough with oxen”; (Isaiah 46:10) “Declaring from the beginning the end,” and it does not explicitly state, “Declaring from the beginning of a thing the end of a thing’ — if it is so (that you assert that this verse intends to point out that heaven and earth were created first), you should be astonished at yourself, because as a matter of fact the waters were created before heaven and earth, for, lo, it is written, (v. 2) “The Spirit of God was hovering on the face of the waters,” and Scripture had not yet disclosed when the creation of the waters took place — consequently you must learn from this that the creation of the waters preceded that of the earth. And a further proof that the heavens and earth were not the first thing created is that the heavens were created from fire (אש) and water (מים), from which it follows that fire and water were in existence before the heavens. Therefore you must admit that the text teaches nothing about the earlier or later sequence of the acts of Creation.,ברא אלהים GOD [AS JUDGE] CREATED — It does not state 'ברא ה “The Lord (the Merciful One) created, because at first God intended to create it (the world) to be placed under the attribute (rule) of strict justice, but He realised that the world could not thus endure and therefore gave precedence to Divine Mercy allying it with Divine Justice. It is to this that what is written in (Genesis 2:4) alludes — “In the day that the Lord God made earth and heaven”. (2) תהו ובהו DESOLATE AND VOID — The word תהו signifies astonishment and amazement, for a person would have been astonished and amazed at its emptiness.,תהו is estordison in old French.,בהו VOID — The word signifies emptiness and empty space.,על פני תהום ON THE FACE OF THE DEEP — i. e. the waters which were upon the earth.,ורוח אלהים מרחפת AND THE SPIRIT OF GOD WAS HOVERING — The throne of Divine Glory was standing in space, hovering over the face of the waters by the breath of the mouth of the Holy One, blessed be He, and by His command, even as a dove hovers over its nest. In old French acoveter. (4) וירא אלהים את האור כי טוב ויבדל AND GOD SAW THE LIGHT THAT IT WAS GOOD, AND GOD CAUSED A DIVISION — Here, also, we must depend upon the statement of the Agada: He saw that the wicked were unworthy of using it (the light); He, therefore, set it apart (ויבדל), reserving it for the righteous in the world to come (Chagigah 12a). But according to the plain sense explain it thus: He saw that it was good, and that it was not seemly that light and darkness should function together in a confused manner. He therefore limited this one’s sphere of activity to the daytime, and this one’s sphere of activity to the nighttime (see Genesis Rabbah 3:6). (5) יום אחד THE FIRST DAY (literally, one day) — According to the regular mode of expression used in this chapter it should be written here “first day”, just as it is written with regard to the other days “the second”, “the third”, “the fourth”. Why, then, does it write אחד “one”? Because the Holy One, blessed be He, was then the Only One (Sole Being) in His Universe, since the angels were not created until the second day. Thus it is explained in Genesis Rabbah (Genesis Rabbah 3:8). (6) יהי רקיע BE THERE AN EXPANSE — Let the expansion become fixed; for although the heavens were created on the first day, they were still in a fluid form, and they became solidified only on the second day at the dread command (literally, rebuke) of the Holy One, blessed be He, when he said “Let the firmament be stable” (Genesis Rabbah 4:2). It is to this that allusion is made in what is written in (Job 26:11): “The pillars of heaven were trembling” (i. e. they were unstable) — this was during the whole of the first day — and on the second (Job 26:11): “they were astonished at His rebuke”, like a man who stands immovable, amazed at the rebuke of one who terrifies him.,בתוך המים IN THE MIDST OF THE WATERS — In the exact centre of the waters; because there is the same distance between the upper waters and the firmament as there is between the firmament and the waters that are upon the earth. Thus you may infer that they (the upper waters) are suspended in space by the command of the King (Genesis Rabbah 4:3). (7) ויעש אלהים את הרקיע AND GOD MADE THE EXPANSE — He put it in proper condition in its place: this is the meaning of “making” it. Similarly (Deuteronomy 21:12) ועשתה את צפרניה “And she shall let grow (literally, make) her nails”.,מעל לרקיע ABOVE THE EXPANSE — It is not said here על הרקיע “upon the firmament״, but מעל “hanging from above”, because they (the waters) were suspended in space (Genesis Rabbah 4:3). Why is it not stated in reference to the work of the second day “that it was good”? Because the work associated with water was not completed until the third day — He only began it on the second — and anything that is not completed is not in a state of perfection and at its best (and so cannot be termed “good”). Therefore on the third day when He completed the work associated with water and another work was commenced and finished, the words כי טוב are repeated, once in reference to the completion of the work of the second day, and again in reference to the completion of the work of that day (Genesis Rabbah 4:10). (8) ויקרא אלהים לרקיע שמים AND GOD CALLED THE EXPANSE HEAVEN — The word “שמים”, Heaven, may be regarded as made up of שא מים “Carry water”, or שם מים “There is water”, or אש ומים “Fire and water”. He mingled fire with water and of them He made the heavens (Chagigah 12a). (9) יקוו המים THE WATERS SHALL BE DRAWN TOGETHER — For they were then spread over the surface of the whole earth, and He now gathered them together into what now constitutes the Ocean, which is the largest of all seas (Genesis Rabbah 5:2). (10) קרא ימים CALLED HE SEAS — But does it not form one great sea? But it speaks of seas because the taste of fish which comes up from the sea at Acco is not the same as the taste of fish which comes up from the sea at Aspamia (Genesis Rabbah 5:8). (11) תדשא הארץ דשא עשב THE EARTH SHALL SPROUT FORTH SPROUTS, HERB — דשא does not mean the same as עשב nor does עשב mean the same as דשא so that it is not a correct expression in Biblical Hebrew to say תעשיב הארץ, for the species of דשא are all different, each by itself being called this or that עשב, and it would not be linguistically correct for a speaker to say this or that דשא, for by דשא is meant that which forms the covering of the ground when it is filled with herbage.,תדשא הארץ THE EARTH SHALL SPROUT FORTH [SPROUTS] — Let it be filled and covered with a garment of different grasses. In old French דשא is called herbaries; English herbage, meaning all species of herbs growing together collectively whilst each root by itself is called an עשב.,— מזריע זרע YIELDING SEED — that its seed should grow within itself, so that some of it may be sown in another spot.,עץ פרי FRUIT TREE — that the taste of the tree be exactly the same as that of the fruit. It did not, however, do this, but (v. 12) “the earth brought forth a tree yielding fruit” and the tree itself was not a fruit; therefore when Adam was cursed on account of his sin, it (the earth) was also visited (because of its sin) and was cursed also (Genesis Rabbah 5:9).,אשר זרעו בו WHOSE SEED IS IN ITSELF — This refers to the kernels of each kind of fruit from which the tree grows when they are planted. (12) ותוצא הארץ וגו AND THE EARTH BROUGHT FORTH etc. — Although the expression למינהו according to its kind, was not used when the various kinds of herbage were bidden to come forth, they heard that the trees were so commanded and they applied to themselves the argument à fortiore (ק"ו), as it is explained in an Aggadic passage in (Chullin 60a). (14) יהי מארת BE THERE LUMINARIES — They had been created on the first day, but on the fourth He commanded them to be suspended in the firmament (Chagigah 12a). Indeed, all the productions of heaven and earth were created on the first day, but each of them was put in its place on that day when it was so commanded. In reference to this it is written את השמים (v. 1) In the beginning God created that which was את with the heavens etc., in order to include all the productions of heaven, ואת הארץ to include all its (the earth’s) productions (Genesis Rabbah 12:4).,יהי מארת The word is written without the ו after the א (so that it may be read מארת, cursed), because it is a cursed day when children are liable to suffer from croup. In reference to this we read (in Taanit 27b): On the fourth day of the week they used to fast to avert croup from the children (Yerushalmi Taanit 4:3).,להבדיל בין היום ובין הלילה TO CAUSE A DIVISION BETWEEN THE DAY AND THE NIGHT — This took place after the primeval (divine) light was conserved for the righteous; but during the first seven [another reading is “three”] days of Creation the primeval light and darkness functioned together both by day and by night.,והיו לאותות AND THEY SHALL BE FOR SIGNS — When the heavenly luminaries are eclipsed it is a sign of ill-omen for the world, as it is written, (Jeremiah 10:2) “Be not dismayed at the signs of heaven” — when you carry out the will of the Holy One, blessed be He, you need apprehend no calamity (Sukkah 29a).,ולמועדים AND FOR SEASONS (FESTIVALS) — This is written with a view to the future when Israel would receive command regarding the festivals which would be calculated from the time of the lunar conjunction (Genesis Rabbah 6:1).,ולימים AND FOR DAYS — The sun functions half a day and the moon the other half — together a full day.,ושנים AND FOR YEARS — At the end of three hundred and sixty five days [another version: 365¼] they complete their course through the twelve signs of the Zodiac that attend them, and that is one year [another version: and this makes 365¼ days]; they then begin to revolve a second time in a circle similar to their first cycle. (15) והיו למאורות AND LET THEM BE FOR LIGHTS — They shall serve also this purpose, namely, to give light to the world. (16) המאורות הגדולים THE GREAT LUMINARIES — They were created of equal size, but that of the moon was diminished because she complained and said, “It is impossible for two kings to make use of one crown” (Chullin 60b).,ואת הכוכבים AND THE STARS — Because He diminished the moon, He increased its attendant hosts to mollify it (Genesis Rabbah 6:4). (20) נפש חיה LIVING CREATURES — Creatures that shall have vitality.,שרץ Every living creature that does not rise much above the ground is called שרץ, e. g., of winged creatures — flies; of abominable creatures — ants, beetles and worms; of larger creatures — the mole, snail and others of the same kind, and all fishes. (21) התנינים THE HUGE CREATURES — the large fishes that are in the sea; and according to the statement of the Agada (Bava Batra 74b) it means here the Leviathan and its consort which He created male and female. He, however, killed the female and preserved it in salt for the benefit of the righteous in the time to come, for had they been permitted to be fruitful and to multiply the world could not have endured because of them.,נפש חיה — that have vitality. (22) ויברך אותם AND HE BLESSED THEM — Because people decreased their number, hunting them and eating them, they needed a blessing (Genesis Rabbah 11:2); it is true that beasts also were in need of a blessing, but on account of the serpent that was to be cursed in the future, He did not bless them, in order that it might not be included in the blessing.,פרו BE FRUITFUL — פרו is of the same root as פרי, and means bring forth fruit.,ורבו AND MULTIPLY — Had He said “Be fruitful” only, one creature might have brought forth a single one, and no more, therefore He added ורבו “and multiply”, implying that one should bring forth many. (24) תוצא הארץ THE EARTH SHALL BRING FORTH — That is what I have explained (v. 14) that all things were created on the first day, and it was only necessary to bring them forth from the ground.,נפש חיה — that have vitality.,ורמש — It means creeping swarms that creep low upon the ground; they appear as though they are dragged along, for how they move is not discernible. What we call רמש and שרץ in our (Hebrew) language, they call in old French mouvoir; English to move. (25) ויעש AND HE MADE — He formed them with their full volition and in their full stature (Chullin 60a). (26) נעשה אדם WE WILL MAKE MAN — The meekness of the Holy One, blessed be He, they (the Rabbis) learned from here: because the man is in the likeness of the angels and they might envy him, therefore He took counsel with them (Midrash Tanchuma, Shemot 18 and see Genesis Rabbah 8). And when He judges the kings He likewise consults His heavenly council, for thus we find in the case of Ahab to whom Micha said, (1 Kings 22:19) “I saw the Lord sitting on His throne, and all the host of heaven standing by Him on His right hand and on His left.” Has God, then, a right hand and a left hand? But it means that some stood on the right side to plead in favour of the accused and others stood on the left side to accuse; and similarly we read (Daniel 4:14), “the matter is by the decree of the watchers, and the sentence by the word of the holy ones”, — here, also, He consulted His heavenly council and asked permission of them, saying to them: “There are in the heavens beings after My likeness; if there will not be on earth also beings after My likeness, there will be envy among the beings that I have created” (Sanhedrin 38b).,נעשה אדם WE WILL MAKE MAN — Although they did not assist Him in forming him (the man) and although this use of the plural may give the heretics an occasion to rebel (i. e. to argue in favour of their own views), yet the verse does not refrain from teaching proper conduct and the virtue of humbleness, namely, that the greater should consult, and take permission from the smaller; for had it been written, “I shall make man”, we could not, then, have learned that He spoke to His judicial council but to Himself. And as a refutation of the heretics it is written immediately after this verse “And God created the man”, and it is not written “and they created” (Genesis Rabbah 8:9),בצלמנו IN OUR IMAGE — in our type.,כדמתנו AFTER OUR LIKENESS — with the power to comprehend and to discern.,וירדו בדגת הים AND THEY SHALL HAVE DOMINION OVER THE FISH … [AND OVER THE BEASTS] — The expression וירדו may imply dominion as well as descending — if he is worthy he dominates over the beasts and cattle, if he is not worthy he will sink lower than them, and the beast will rule over him (Genesis Rabbah 8:12). (27) ויברא אלהים את האדם בצלמו SO GOD CREATED THE MAN IN HIS IMAGE —in the type that was specially made for him, for everything else was created by a creative fiat, whilst he was brought into existence by a creative act (literally, by hand), as it is said (Psalms 139:5) “And Thou hast laid thy hand upon me.” He was made by a seal as a coin that is made by a die that is called in old French coin. It is similarly said, (Job 28:14) “it is changed as clay under the seal” (Sanhedrin 38a).,בצלם אלהים ברא אותו IN THE IMAGE OF GOD CREATED HE HIM — It explains to you that the form prepared for him was the form of the image of his Creator.,זכר ונקבה ברא אותם MALE AND FEMALE CREATED HE THEM — And further on (Genesis 2:21) it is said: “and He took one of his ribs etc.” (The two passages appear to be contradictory.) But according to a Midrashic explanation, He created him at first with two faces, and afterwards He divided him. But the real sense of the verse is: here it tells you that both of them were created on the sixth day, but it does not explain to you how their creation took place; this it explains to you in another place (Genesis Rabbah 8:1 and see Eruvin 18a) . (28) וכבשה AND SUBDUE IT — The word lacks a ו after the ש so that it may be read as meaning: and subdue her (i. e. the woman), thereby teaching you that the male controls the female in order that she may not become a gad-about; teaching you also that to the man, whose nature is to master, was given the Divine command to have issue, and not to the woman (Yevamot 65b). (29) ולכל חית הארץ AND TO EVERY BEAST OF THE EARTH — Scripture places cattle and beasts on a level with them (human beings: that is, it places all alike in the same category) with regard to food, and did not permit Adam to kill any creature and eat its flesh, but all alike were to eat herbs. But when the era of the “Sons of Noah” began He permitted them to eat meat, for it is said, (Genesis 9:3) “every moving thing that lives should be for food for yourselves … “even as the herb” that I permitted to the first man, so do “I give to you everything” (Sanhedrin 59b). (31) יום הששי THE SIXTH DAY — The letter ה, the numerical value of which is 5, is added to the word ששי when the work of Creation was complete, to imply that He made a stipulation with them that it endures only upon condition that Israel should accept the five books of the Torah (Shabbat 88a). Another interpretation of יום הששי THE SIXTH DAY — The whole Creation (the Universe) stood in a state of suspense (moral imperfection) until the sixth day — that is, the sixth day of Sivan which was destined to be the day when the Torah would be given to Israel (Avodah Zara 3a). (2) ויכל אלהים ביום השביעי AND ON THE SEVENTH DAY GOD FINISHED — R. Simeon says: A human being (literally, flesh and blood) who cannot know exactly his times and moments (who cannot accurately determine the point of time that marks the division between one period and that which follows it) must needs add from the week-day and observe it as the holy day (the Sabbath), but the Holy One, blessed be He, who knows His times and moments, began it (the seventh day) to a very hair’s breadth (with extreme exactness) and it therefore appeared as though He had completed His work on that very day (Genesis Rabbah 10:9). Another explanation: What did the world lack? Rest! Sabbath came — Rest came; and the work was thus finished and completed (Genesis Rabbah 10:9)! (3) ויברך … ויקדש AND GOD BLESSED … AND HE SANCTIFIED — He blessed it through the Manna, that on all other days of the week there should fall for them (the Israelites) an Omer for each person, whereas on the sixth day there should fall twice as much of that bread. So, too, He sanctified it through the Manna, that it should not fall at all on the Sabbath (Genesis Rabbah 11:2). This verse is written here with reference to what would happen in the future.,אשר ברא אלהים לעשות WHICH GOD IN CREATING HAD MADE — The work which should have been done on the Sabbath He did in the double work which He executed on the sixth day, as it is explained in Genesis Rabbah 11:9.

(1) IN THE BEGINNING. Our wise men1The Hebrew grammarians. See Ibn Janah, Sefer ha-Rikmah, 6:2. taught that the letter bet (of bereshit, in the beginning) is superfluous.2The letter bet placed before the word reshit has no translatable meaning. According to Weiser it is there for emphasis. Our verse should thus be rendered: First God created heaven and earth. They compare it to the bet in the word ba-rishonah (at the first) (Genesis 13:4). We know the bet in ba-rishonah to be superfluous for we find they shall set forth first (rishonah) (Numbers 2:9).3According to this opinion rishonah and ba-rishonah mean the same. Hence the bet of ba-rishonah is superfluous. However, if this were so the bet (of bereshit) would be vocalized with a long kamatz.4As is the bet of ba-rishonah. The fact that the bet of bereshit is vocalized with a sheva proves that both cases are not exactly the same. Other scholars maintain that the word bereshit is always in the construct and its meaning in our verse is: “In the beginning of the evening, or of the night, or of the darkness.”5The word or phrase that bereshit is connected to is missing and must be supplied by the reader. According to Cherez, I.E. is trying to explain why the superfluous bet of bereshit is vocalized with a sheva while that of ba-rishonah is vocalized with a kamatz. The reason is that bereshit is in the construct and therefore is vocalized with a sheva. However, they have overlooked And he chose a first part (reshit) for himself (Deuteronomy 33:21).6Where the word reshit is in the absolute. Others say that the bet of bereshit is a preposition.7The Hebrew texts printed in our editions are most probably incorrect. We have followed Vat. Ebr. 38, which has kli ta’am rather than bli ta’am. For alternate interpretations see Filwarg, Weiser and Cherez. They explain that Scripture intends to preclude the thought that heaven and earth were preexisting. Hence it states, In the beginning.8The bet is there for emphasis. The meaning of the verse is: In the beginning, i.e., before anything was created, God created heaven and earth. I believe that bereshit is in the construct, as in In the beginning of (bereshit) the reign of Jehoiakim (Jeremiah 26:1).9I.E. agrees that bereshit is in the construct. He disagrees with the earlier quoted opinion only in maintaining that it is not always in the construct. Don’t ask, how can a word in the construct be connected to a verb in the perfect.10A noun is usually in the construct when connected to another noun, hence I.E.’s comment. This presents no problem, for we find that very case in the verse When the Lord spoke at first with Hosea (Hosea 1:2),11Techillat (at first) is in the construct with dibber (spoke). and in the verse the city where David encamped (Isaiah 29:1).12Kiryat (the city) is in the construct with chanah (encamped). The meaning of bereshit will be explained in our comments on the next verse.13That is, the explanation of what bereshit in the construct is to be connected to.,CREATED. Most Biblical commentators explain that the word bara (created) indicates creation ex nihilo. But if the Lord make (yivra) a new thing (beri’ah) (Num. 16:30) is similar. However, they have overlooked And God created (va-yivra) the great sea monsters14God obviously did not create the sea monsters ex nihilo, for the verse concludes, and every living creature that creepeth, wherewith the waters swarmed, which shows that the sea monsters were created out of the water. Also, it is absurd to assume that on the fifth day of creation God would create sea monsters ex nihilo. (Gen. 1:21) and the three times the word created is used in one verse, viz., And God created (va-yivra) man in His own image, in the image of God created (bara) He him; male and female created (bara) He them (Gen. 1:27). They also failed to consider I form the light, and create darkness (Is. 45:7) wherein darkness, which is the opposite of light, an existing entity, is described by the prophet as being created.15Darkness is the absence of light. Thus Isaiah uses the term created in the opposite sense of creation ex nihilo. In Isaiah it means the creation of nothing out of something (Krinsky). Hence bara does not necessarily imply creation ex nihilo. The following is the precise explanation of the word bara. Bara has two meanings, one of which has been noted above.16That is, to create or make. The second17That is, to eat. is found in the verse neither did he eat (bara) bread with them (II Samuel 12:17). However, in the latter case, an alef has been substituted for a heh.18Most of our manuscripts of the Bible have barah with a heh. However, Ibn Ezra’s manuscript must have had bara with an alef. See also Jacob ben Haim’s edition of the Hebrew Bible, 1524, which has the same reading as Ibn Ezra. There is some difficulty in understanding this comment as the printed text is corrupt. We have followed Vat. Ebr. 38 as suggested by Weiser. For a different rendering see Filwarg. The reason is that bara (in I Sam. 12:17) is similar to le-havrot (to urge to eat) in And all the people came to cause David to eat (le-havrot) bread (II Sam. 3:35). The verb le-havrot appears in the hifil (and its root ends with heh), for if it ended with an alef, Scripture would have read le-havri, as in to make yourselves fat (le-havri’achem) with the chiefest of all the offerings of Israel (I Sam. 2:29). We also find bara conjugated in the pi’el, as in and cut down (u-vereta) for thyself (trees) (Joshua 17:15). This is not like the similar word beru in choose (beru) you a man for you (I Sam. 17:8) but rather like bare (hack, dispatch) in and dispatch them (u-vare) with their swords19Ibn Janah, The Book of Roots, root bet, resh, alef, explains bara in Josh. 17:15 to mean chose, as in I Sam. 17:8. Ibn Ezra disagrees. The point of I.E’s comment is that bara spelled bet, resh, alef primarily means to cut. It is encountered with this meaning in both the kal and pi’el. Bara also means to eat. However, in the latter case its root is bet, resh, heh, although it is found spelled bet, resh, alef in I Sam. 17:8. In the latter instance, however, we treat it as if there were an interchange between the heh and alef. (Ezekiel 23:47). The meaning of bara is to cut or to set a boundary. The intelligent person will understand what I am alluding to.20I. Husik, A History of Medieval Jewish Philosophy, p. 190, notes, “The Hebrew word bara, ordinarily translated “created,” which implies to most people the idea of creatio ex nihilo, Ibn Ezra renders, in accordance with its etymology, to limit, to define, by drawing or incising a line or boundary. Having said this, Ibn Ezra, in his wonted mysterious manner, stops short, refusing to say more, and preferring to mystify the reader by adding the tantalizing phrase, ‘The intelligent will understand.’ He means apparently to indicate that an eternal matter was endowed with form.” Nahman Krochmal, More Nevuche Ha-zeman (quoted by Krinsky), suggests that Ibn Ezra’s belief is similar to that of the Kabbalists; i.e., the world was created out of an emanation from God. See also C. Sirot, Philosophy in the Middle Ages (Hebrew), p. 112. Ibn Ezra was a neo-Platonist. According to neo-Platonism the world came about by emanation from God. Ibn Ezra is apparently saying that at the creation spoken of in the first chapter of Genesis, God gave final form to what had previously emanated from Him.,GOD. Elohim (God) is a plural. We know this because we come across the singular form Elo’ah.21Ps. 114:7. Elo’ah being the singular of Elohim. Elohim is employed stylistically. Every language has honorific terminology. In the non-Hebrew tongues when an inferior addresses a superior he employs the plural. In Arabic it is customary for a dignitary such as a king to speak in the plural. In Hebrew, too, it is considered a sign of dignity to employ the plural when speaking of a superior. Such is the case with the words adonim (lords) and be’alim (owners). Thus Scripture says, a cruel lord (adonim) (Is. 19:4),22Adonim is a plural, yet its meaning in this verse is singular (lord). The singular of adonim is adon. and and the owner thereof (be’alav) shall accept it (Exodus 22:10).23Be’alav literally means, its owners. The terms alav (upon him), elav (to him), and adav (unto him) are similar.24All of these words have plural endings, yet are used to indicate singulars. It is for this reason that Scipture reads bara Elohim and not bare’u Elohim.25Since Elohim is to be understood as singular, the verb following it (bara) is in the singular. If Elohim were plural, the verb following it would also be plural (bare’u). We know from the study of logic that speech is called safah26Safah is the Hebrew word for lip. The point is that more than the lips are involved in speech, but speech is so called because it is seen to come from the lips. because it is seen to come from the lips. Similarly man’s highest soul is called heart (lev) even though the soul itself is incorporeal while the heart is corporeal. It is referred to in this manner because the heart is its first resting place. Similarly God is called Elohim because His actions are executed via angels who do His will and who are referred to as Elohim.27Man’s soul is often referred to in Scripture as lev because the soul acts via the heart. Similarly God is called Elohim because He acts via the angels. Husik, p. 191, points out that according to I.E., “God cannot come in contact with the material and changeable (hence)…it follows that (the terrestrial world)…was not made directly by him, but by angels; hence the word Elohim is used in the first chapter of Genesis, which means primarily the angels, and secondarily God as acting through the angels.” I will explain part of the secret of God’s name when I comment on for My name is in him (Ex. 23:21). Pay no heed to the opinion of Rabbi Saadiah Gaon who holds that man is superior to the angels. I have already explained to you in The Book of Foundation that all of his proofs are wrong. We know that the prophets are the most exalted human beings. Nevertheless, the prophet Joshua fell upon his face and prostrated himself before God’s angel and said to him, What saith my lord unto his servant (Josh. 5:14).28Joshua’s bowing before God’s angels proves that angels are superior to prophets. The same is true of the prophets Zechariah and Daniel.29Both address the angels as superiors. See Zechariah 1:9 and Dan. 10:17. Why should I elaborate when this point is so elementary?The meaning of Lord of Hosts (Elohe ha-tzeva’ot) is the same as God of gods (Elohe ha-Elohim) (Deut. 10:17).30We thus see that Elohim means the same as tzeva’ot (hosts or angels). The definition of elohim (lord) is angels.31Reading malakh (angel) rather than melekh (king) (Weiser). People engaged in the dispensation of God’s justice are also called elohim.32According to Rabbinic interpretation Elohim at times signifies a judge. See Mekhilta on Ex. 21:6. Elohim is an adjective, not a proper noun.33Hence it can be declined and be in the construct. A proper noun cannot. I.E. seems to limit the term noun to proper nouns. Apparently common nouns were treated like adjectives. It is not found conjugated in the perfect or imperfect.34Hebrew adjectives have verbal forms. However, Elohim is never found in the verbal form. Nevertheless, Ibn Ezra insists that it is an adjective. One should not assume that angels are composed of fire and air because Scripture states, Who makest winds Thy messengers, The flaming fire Thy ministers (Psalms 104:4).35Which implies that God makes his angels out of wind. This is not the literal meaning of this verse. David (in Psalm 104) speaks first of creation. He starts with light and says, Who coverest Thyself with light as with a garment (Ps. 104:2). He then goes on to say, Who stretchest out the heavens like a curtain, heaven referring to the firmament upon which is water, fire, snow and wind. David next says that the wind serves as God’s agent; i.e., it goes wherever God sends it. He speaks in a similar vein of fire as one of God’s ministers.36Psalm 104. It is not to be taken as implying that the angels are made out of fire. It rather means that fire is God’s agent. Cf. Ibn Ezra on Ps. 104:4. David then says, Who didst establish the earth upon its foundations (Ps. 104:5), which refers to dry land. Similarly it is written, Stormy wind, fulfilling His word (Ps. 148:8).37Which shows that the wind is God’s agent. Krinsky suggests that this quote is misplaced and should follow, “it (the winds) goes wherever God sends it.”,Et indicates the very thing. It signifies the direct object, as in the heaven (et ha-shamayim).38Gen. 1:1. The word et is a most difficult word to translate because it has many different meanings, depending on the context. However, sometimes it is omitted, as in that God created man (Deut. 4:32). It is also found placed before the subject, as in and when there came a lion, or (ve-et) a bear (I Sam. 17:34). However, the latter usage is very rare. Furthermore, et is used in place of with or from.39Cf. Ex. 2:21; 9:29.,THE HEAVEN. The definite article (ha) is placed before heaven (shamayim) to indicate that Scripture speaks of the heaven visible to man.40That is, the firmament. According to I.E. there is a heaven above the firmament which is invisible to man. This heaven is eternal. It contains the spheres in which the planets and constellations are embodied. Above this heaven is the abode of the angels. Cf. Husik, p. 190. Heaven (shamayim) is always written in the plural.41The word shamayim (heaven) is a plural. It is possible that its dominion in Knowest thou the ordinances of the heavens? Canst thou establish its dominion over the earth?42In this verse its dominion is in the singular. Since shamayim is a plural, we would expect “their dominion” rather than “its dominion.” (Job 38:33) refers to the dominion exercised by each one of the heavenly spheres.43See note 40 above. See also Ibn Ezra’s Introduction, page XVII, second paragraph. The meaning of shamayim (heaven) is high and above, as it is in Arabic, a language akin in form to Hebrew. There is also a heaven of heavens.44Cf. Ps. 148:4. Scripture in our chapter speaks of the visible heaven. However, in Psalm 148 it speaks of the “heaven of heavens.” The heaven of heavens is the spheres (Krinsky). See note 40. The word for heaven (shamayim) is never written in the singular.45Even if the reference is to one of the heavens. It is like the words millstone (rechayim) and noon (tzohorayim). Those who are well-versed in geometry will understand these secrets.46They will understand the reference to the heaven of heavens. Saadiah Gaon says that the earth may be compared to a point and the heaven to a thread circling it. Since Scripture tells us that heaven and earth were created, we deduce from this that all their contents, such as fire and water, were also created.47Scripture does not explicitly mention the creation of fire and water, two of the four elements. However, according to Saadiah the creation of these two elements is implied. There was no need for Scripture to mention their creation as their creation is self evident. For how could the fire and water, which filled the void between heaven and earth, be in existence before the creation of their container? Cf. I.E.’s alternate commentary on this verse in Weiser, p. 145. Others say that the earth includes water and the heaven air.48Hence Scripture does state that these two elements were created. However, in my opinion the heaven and earth spoken of in our verse refer only to the firmament and the dry land.49Gen. 1:1 does not tell us that God created heaven and earth on the first day; neither does it deal with the creation of matter. I.E. will explain the meaning of this verse later on in his comments. For only one thing was created on each day. Thus light was created on the first day, the firmament on the second, plants on the third, luminaries on the fourth, and living creatures on the fifth and the sixth. This interpretation is borne out by the psalm quoted above (Psalm 104). It is impossible to maintain that the line circling the dot was created before the dot, or the dot before the circle. Hence our sages say that heaven and earth were created simultaneously.50Hagigah 12a. They offer as proof of their viewpoint, Yea, My hand hath laid the foundation of the earth, And My right hand hath spread out the heavens; When I call unto them, They stand up together (Is. 48:13).51They stand up together implies that they were created simultaneously. However, this proof is questionable. The plain meaning of this verse is not so, for how could God address that which was not yet created?52How can the Bible say, “When I call unto them,” if they were not yet in being? How could He call to that which was in a chaotic state? The explanation of this verse is as follows: I, God, created heaven and earth. When I call them, they stand before Me as servants ready to do My will. The meaning of this verse is similar to that of Thy word standeth fast in heaven (Ps. 119:89). After stating this the Psalmist makes mention of the earth (Ps. 119:90). He then goes on to say that heaven and earth stand ready to execute any commands that God will direct to them (Ps. 119:91). (2) NOW THE EARTH. The word ha-aretz (the earth) is irregular in that it is always vocalized with a kamatz beneath both the heh and the alef.53That is, the word eretz (earth) is vocalized aretz when preceded by the definite article. The normal vocalization should be ha-eretz, with a segol beneath the alef. It is unlike the word ha-elef (the thousand) in Thou, O Solomon, shall have the thousand (ha-elef) (Canticles 8:12); or ha-even (the stone) in and this stone (ha-even) (Gen. 28:22).54In elef and even the segol remains in place even when preceded by the definite article.,UNFORMED. Saadiah Gaon claims that the word tohu (unformed) is a derivative of tehom (the deep). This explanation is incorrect because the mem of tehom is a root letter55Hence the mem would not fall out. Thus tohu cannot derive from tehom. like the mem of hadom (footstool).56The mem of tehom is similar to the mem of hadom. Both mems are integral parts of the respective words and do not drop out. The Sefer Yetzirah explains tohu (unformed) and bohu (void) as follows: Tohu refers to the green line; bohu alludes to the smooth stones.57Cf. Hagigah 12a. “Tohu is a green band which encompasses the whole world, out of which darkness proceeds…, and tohu consists of the smooth stones in the abyss, out of which the waters proceed.” However, the correct meaning of these terms is found in the Aramaic translation of the Pentateuch.58That is, Onkelos. The latter renders these terms as “waste and empty.” We similarly read, And in the waste (tohu), a howling wilderness (Deut. 32:10), and go after vain things (tohu) (I Sam. 12:21), which means worshipping things that have no substance.59That is, idols.,[VOID.] Bohu is a synonym of tohu. The vavs of tohu and bohu are in place of a heh. They are like the vav in (va-yishtachu) (and he bowed)60The final vav of va-yishtachu (and he bowed) is in place of a heh. and the vav of achu (reed-grass) in They fed in the reed-grass (achu) (Gen. 41:2).61The final vav of achu (reed grass) is in place of a heh. The meaning of our verses is this: When the creation of the firmament and the dry land took place, the earth was uninhabited because it was covered with water. God created the earth in such a way that by the laws of nature it would be below the waters.62Earth is the heaviest and water is the second heaviest of the four elements. Hence according to the laws of nature earth has the lowest position and water the next lowest. Thus at the beginning of creation the earth was covered with water. It took a special act of God to dry the land. Do not reject this interpretation because of the vav that is placed before the words the earth (ve-ha-aretz), for its meaning is identical to that of the Arabic fa.63The vav of ve-ha’aretz (and the earth) introduces a new idea. This contradicts I.E.’s assertion that verse 2 is a mere continuation of verse 1, for I.E. interprets verse 1 and 2 as reading: When God made heaven and earth the earth was unformed and void. I.E. thus explains that the vav does not always mean “and” (it is like the Arabic fa). Thus verse 2 reads: the earth was, rather than: and the earth was. The vav placed before the word mist (ed) in but there went up a mist (ve-ed) from the earth (Gen. 2:6)64The vav of ve-ed does not mean “and a mist.” is analogous. Our verses are to be so interpreted because Moses did not speak of the eternal world, which is the world of the angels; he spoke only of the transient world.65There were those who explained the sky in Gen. 1:1 as referring to heaven. Cf. Hagigah 12a; note 40 above. I.E. disagrees. He maintains that heaven in verse 1 refers only to the firmament. How can those who say that the word heaven in the first verse refers to the highest heavens explain the presence of the earth in the same verse?66If shamayim does not refer to the firmament but rather to the abode of the heavenly beings, what, then, does earth refer to? It is illogical to assume that the Bible juxtaposes the creation of the eternal with the creation of the transient. Intelligent people have reputable proof that there is only one earth.67Perhaps one will argue that earth refers to some spiritual earth, hence I.E.’s argument that unlike the heavens there is only one earth. As to the Midrash, when it says that there are seven earths it means that the area of the world inhabited by human beings is divided into seven sections.68The Midrash is not to be taken literally. The seven earths are mentioned in Zohar Chadash 1:216. The Holy Temple was in the center of the inhabited world.69According to the Midrash the Temple was in the center of the world. Cf. Midrash Tehillim 48:2. Here too world means the inhabitable world and not the globe. It was not in the center of the earth because we know that it was far from there.,AND THE SPIRIT OF GOD. Ru’ach (wind) is in the construct with Elohim (God) because it was the medium employed by God to dry the land.70I.E. renders ru’ach (spirit) as wind. Thus ve-ru’ach Elohim (and the spirit of God) means: and God’s wind.,[THE WATERS.] Mayim (waters) is in the plural. It does not come in a singular form. It belongs to the dual forms,71Certain Hebrew words are found only in the dual forms, e.g., noon (tzohorayim), heaven (shamayim), ears (oznayim), hands (yadayim), legs (raglayim). the latter being either masculine or feminine.72Most of the words in dual form are feminine. However, I.E. points out that this is not necessarily so. Waters is in the masculine. A masculine noun may also come in the dual form (Filwarg). For an alternate interpretation see Krinsky. Mayim is also found used in the singular in the water of sprinkling was not dashed against him (Num. 19:13).73Strictly speaking, if mayim is in the plural, the verb pertaining to it should also be in the plural. Hence, rather than “was not,” one would expect “were not.”,[HOVERED.] Merachefet (hovered) means “blowing above the waters.” As an eagle…Hovereth (yerachef) over her young (Deut. 32:11), is similar. (3) AND GOD SAID. Saadiah Gaon interprets va-yomer Elohim (and God said), as and God wanted. However, if this were the case Scripture should have stated God wanted (said) light to be. Therefore va-yomer Elohim is to be rendered “and God said.”74If va-yomer Elohim means God wanted, rather than God said, Scripture should have used the infinite li-heyot in place of yehi; Let there be implies a statement. We similarly read, By the word of the Lord were the heavens made (Ps. 33:6), and For He commanded, and they were created (Ps. 148:5).75Here creation is described as coming about by God’s word. The terms used are: spoke and command. It is absurd to translate these two words as wanted. Scripture describes creation as coming about by God’s word because it wants to teach us that heaven and earth came into being without any labor on God’s part. We may compare this to a king assigning certain tasks to his servants.,[LIGHT.] The light spoken of in this verse was above the air.76See note 88. (4) AND GOD SAW THE LIGHT. “Saw” is to be understood here as perceived. Compare, Then I saw that wisdom excelleth folly (Ecclesiastes 2:13).77I.E’s proof text may be Dan. 10:7, viz., And I Daniel alone saw the vision. I.E. reads, and I saw.,The meaning of divided is: He divided them by naming one, day and the other, night.78God divided light from darkness by giving each a name. This verse doesn’t speak of a physical division. Thus verse 5 explains how God divided the light from the darkness (Filwarg). (5) AND GOD CALLED. The heh of laylah (night) is superfluous, because the word is penultimately accented. It is always a masculine noun.79If the heh of laylah (night) was an essential part of the word, laylah would be a feminine noun and would be accented on the last syllable (Filwarg).,EVENING. Erev (evening) is close in meaning to choshekh (darkness). Erev is so called because forms are then intermingled.80The root of intermingle (erev) is ayin, resh, bet. The opposite of evening is called boker (morning) because one can then distinguish between various forms.81Bakker means to examine. Cf. Lev. 27:33. One day refers to the movement of the sphere.82The heavenly sphere made one revolution. The sun was not yet seen in the firmament; neither was there as yet a firmament. Hence I.E.’s comment. There is a secret meaning to the Midrashic statement to the effect that the world will exist for six thousand years.83Cf. Sanhedrin 97a. Once it is stated that God called the light “day,” it is impossible to maintain that the evening, too, is considered part of the day.84I.E. takes issue with those who maintain that the evening is part of the day. According to I.E. day refers only to daylight. For the implications of this comment see Weiser. ,The correct interpretation of And there was evening and there was morning, one day is that evening passed and the morning of the first day also came. If the intention of this verse is to teach that evening and morning make a day, then what is the meaning of And there was evening and there was morning, a second day (v. 8)?85If the intention of Scripture is to teach us that evening and morning make a day, why keep on repeating this with regard to the subsequent days? Hence Scripture is only describing what happened (Kaputa). (6) AND GOD SAID. Saadiah Gaon says things about the firmament that are not so.86Saadiah says that the waters are congealed on the firmament in a manner similar to the albumen of an egg. Saadiah also identifies the firmament with heaven (Krinsky). The correct interpretation of firmament (raki’a) is something spread out, as in And they did beat (va-yirakke’u) the gold into thin plates (Ex. 39:3); Then did I beat them (erka’em) (II Sam. 22:43); and similarly, And spreadeth them out as a tent to dwell in (Is. 40:22). How precious are the words of he who said that the firmament begins at the point where the sun and the ocean merge.87Reading ketzot ha-shamayim, as in Vat. Ebr. 38, for ketzot ha-shemesh. Cf. Pirke de-Rabbi Eliezer, Chap. III. The firmament is the air because when the light shone very strongly upon the earth and a wind dried off from the earth, the flame turned into the firmament.88I.E. apparently alludes here to “the light as the medium whereby the chaotic base elements were progressively transformed into their present form” (Levine). Fire was believed to be one of the primeval elements out of which the world was created. I.E. believed that this element “changed and became the raki’a (firmament)” (Cohen). Similarly89Ps. 104:2 describes the heaven (firmament) as being “stretched out like a curtain,” which agrees with I.E.’s interpretation that the firmament is “something spread out.” Furthermore, Psalm 104, like Gen. 1:6-10, first describes the creation of the sky and then that of the dry land. the Psalmist states, Who stretchest out the heavens like a curtain; Who layest the beams of Thine upper chambers in the waters (Ps. 104:2 and 3). The Psalmist then makes mention of the clouds and the wind and the establishment of the earth. The latter is above the waters. We thus read, For He hath founded it (the earth) upon the seas (Ps. 24:2), and To Him that spread forth the earth above the waters (Ps. 136:6). Similarly whoever goes to the ocean is said to be going down.90For the earth is above the waters. Cf. Ps. 107:23. The meaning of (He) That calleth for the waters of the sea, And poureth them out upon the face of the earth91Which implies that the waters are above the earth. (Amos 5:8) is that God commands the waters of the sea to give birth to clouds, and, afterward, And (He) poureth them out upon the face of the earth. (7) AND GOD MADE. Dividing one thing from another is expressed by placing the preposition ben (between) before the first object and a lamed before the second, as in And let it divide92The verse literally reads: and let it divide between. the waters (ben mayim) from the waters (la-mayim) (Gen. 1:6) and between the holy (ben kodesh) and the common (le-chol) (Ezek. 44:23). It may also be expressed by placing the preposition (ben) before each one of the objects, as in our verse and divided the waters93The verse literally reads: and God divided between the waters. (ben ha-mayim) which were under the firmament from the waters (u-ven ha-mayim) which were above the firmament. And it is found with the word ben repeated and a lamed before the second object, as in But your iniquities have separated Between you (benekhem) and your God (le-ven elohekhem) (Is. 59:2).,[AND IT WAS SO.] This phrase is connected to the verse which follows it: When it was so, God called the firmament heaven.94And it was so is out of place following And God made the firmament. If he made it, then obviously it was so. Hence it does not apply to verse 7 but is connected to verse 8; viz., after the firmament came into being God called it heaven (Krinsky). (8) AND GOD CALLED. There are five things which God named because there was then no man to name them. They are: light, darkness, heaven, earth and the seas. In addition, God named man.95Scripture explicitly tells us that God named the Light, the Darkness, etc. I.E. points out that God also named Adam, even though this is not expressly stated in our chapter. (9) AND GOD SAID. I believe that this chapter is connected to the one preceding it96In the Hebrew Bible verses 6-8 and 9-13 form separate chapters. According to I.E. verse 9 does not start the account of the third day of creation, but is a continuation of verse 8. See note 99. because the firmament did not come into being until the land dried.97Thus land was created on the second day and not on the third day. Proof of this is Scripture’s statement, In the day that the Lord God made earth (dry land) and heaven (the firmament) (Gen. 2:4). Thus they were made on the same day. The revelation of something which had previously been hidden (the land) or the gathering of something which was scattered (the water) into one place is not a creation.98Hence Scripture (Gen. 2:4) states, the Lord God made earth and heaven, rather than the Lord God created earth and heaven. I.E. had previously commented that only one thing was created on each day. He therefore explains that the making of the firmament and dry land on one day does not constitute the creation of two things on the same day, for the drying of the land was not a creation. The meaning of our verse is: now God had said, Let the waters under the heaven be gathered.99And God said is to be understood as a pluperfect. Verses 8 and 9 are to be read as one verse and understood as follows: And God called the firmament heaven…for God had said, Let the waters under the heaven be gathered together unto one place (Cohen). There are hundreds of similar instances in the Torah. I will offer two examples from the portion of Bereshit. One is: And the Lord God planted a garden eastward, in Eden; and there He put the man whom He had formed (Gen. 2:8). After stating this, Scripture goes on to say, And out of the ground made the Lord God to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight (v. 9). However, God caused vegetation and trees to sprout before the creation of man.100According to Gen. 1:11,12, vegetation was created before man. Therefore the meaning of Gen. 2:9 is: And out of the ground the Lord God had previously made to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight. The second example is when God commanded man not to eat from the tree of knowledge (Gen. 2:16). However, immediately after this it is written, And out of the ground the Lord God formed every beast of the field, and every fowl of the air; and brought them unto the man, etc. (Gen. 2:19).101The implication is that the beasts of the field were created after man. However, Gen. 1:25 tells us that man was created after the beasts of the field. Hence the meaning of formed in Gen. 2:19 is had formed, i.e., before creating man God had formed the beasts of the field and every fowl of the air. The meaning of formed thus is had formed. According to this interpretation it follows that And God saw that it was good (Gen. 1:10) is connected to the act of creation which took place on the second day.102The account describing the making of the sky and the earth concludes with Gen. 1:10, And God saw that is was good. The account of the creation which took place on the third day thus begins with And God said: Let the earth put forth grass (Gen. 1:11).,[LET…BE GATHERED.] The meaning of yikkavu is let them come together. Ve-nikvu in At that time they shall call Jerusalem the throne of the Lord; and all nations shall be gathered (ve-nikvu) unto it (Jer. 3:17) is similar. (10) [SEAS.] Scripture employs the term seas (yammim) because there is no one name for the sea that surrounds all of the earth.103Ibn Ezra, in line with other medievalists, believed that there is one sea covering most of the earth. Thus he was faced with the problem of why Scripture doesn’t say God called the gathering of the waters “sea.” His guess was that the sea had different names in different places. Hence Scripture refers to it as seas. For an alternate interpretation see Filwarg. (11) AND GOD SAID. Scripture states, Let the earth put forth grass (Gen. 1:11); Let the waters swarm with swarms of living creatures (Gen. 1:20); Let the earth bring forth the living creature after its kind (Gen. 1:24). This teaches that God placed in the earth and in the water the power to bring forth these things at God’s command. These are the generations (offspring) of the heaven and the earth (Gen. 2:4).104Filwarg. For an alternate interpretation see Krinsky.,[LET THE EARTH PUT FORTH GRASS.] Tadshe means let it put forth.,WHEREIN IS THE SEED THEREOF. Wherein the seed is in the fruit and each one produces its own kind. (14) AND GOD SAID. Yehi (let there be) is short for yiheyeh. Due to the frequency with which this term is used, it is employed before both the singular and the plural.105Luminaries is a plural, so Scripture should have used the plural yiheyu, rather than the singular yehi. It is also employed in Scripture with the feminine as in, If there be a damsel (yiheyeh) that is a virgin (Deut. 22:23).106Since damsel is a feminine, the verb tiheyeh, rather than yiheyeh (which is masculine), should have been used. I.E. points out that there is a tendency toward uniformity when a word is employed frequently.,FOR SIGNS AND FOR SEASONS. For signs, i.e., for minutes, and for seasons, i.e., for hours. For signs may also be interpreted as referring to the eclipse of the moon and the sun and also to shooting stars. The last-mentioned phenomena are to be included among the signs produced by the lights of the firmament because they are caused by the stars. This meaning of signs is like signs in And be not dismayed at the signs (omens) of heaven (Jer. 10:2). Anyone who explains the lamed of le-otot (for signs) as superfluous is mistaken.107I.E.’s point is that the lamed is a preposition.,AND LET THEM BE FOR SIGNS. A prominent Spanish sage108Ibn Janah (Krinsky). stated that the firmament is divided into eight parts, seven for the seven spheres of the seven stars and one for the constellations.109The eighth sphere is a sphere of the constellations. The seven “planets” are the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. Each “planet” has its own sphere (Krinsky). Hence the firmament consists of eight parts. Heaven consists of the seven planets and the constellations. Thus according to the Spanish sage the firmament and heaven are identical. However, this cannot be so because we know there is no body above the sphere of the constellations. Behold, Scripture explicitly states, And God set them in the firmament of the heaven, which clearly indicates that there is a heaven above the firmament. The heaven of heavens (Nehemiah 9:6) and To Him that rideth upon the heaven of heavens, which are of old (kedem) (Ps. 68:34) are similar.110The term heaven of heavens refers to the heaven above the firmament. It is I.E.’s belief that the planets and constellations are above the firmament (see note 40). Note that the word kedem in the verse quoted above does not mean east but ancient.111Kedem may also mean east, but not here. If the verse alluded to the eastern sky it could not refer to the heaven above the firmament (the ancient heaven) which is invisible. Indeed, Rabbi Saadiah Gaon, may the righteous be remembered for a blessing, was afraid to comment on this verse.112The word kedem means old. It implies that they are older than the earth and may even be eternal. Hence Saadiah refrains from commenting on this verse. See Krinsky. It appears to me that the sun, the moon and other luminaries are called lights in the firmament because they are visible there.113According to I.E. the luminaries are not in the firmament. They are above it. Nevertheless, Scripture states that God placed them in the firmament because they shine through the firmament and thus appear to be there. (16) AND GOD MADE. The sun and the moon are called the great lights in contradistinction to the stars.114The term “two great lights” implies that both lights were of equal size, hence I.E.’s comment. Cf. Rashi’s comment on this verse. Similarly the first three sons of Jesse are called the elders, in contrast to their younger brothers.115Obviously only one of them was the eldest. In reality, Eliab, the first born, was the oldest of them all. As to the Midrash, which states One was not greater than the other,116That is, both the sun and the moon were the same size at creation. Cf. Pirke de-Rabbi Eliezer, Chap. VI. there is a secret meaning to it.117The Midrashic statement is not to be taken literally.,[TO RULE THE DAY.] The sun rules during the day and not at night because it is not seen. Conversely, the light of the moon and stars are not seen during the day. One may ask, do not the astronomers teach that Jupiter and all the stars, with the exception of Mercury and Venus, are larger than the moon? Why, then, is it written the great lights?118The implication from Scripture is clearly that the moon is larger than the stars. The answer is that the term great does not refer to size but to light, and the light of the moon is many times greater than their light because of its proximity to the earth. Thus we see that Scripture describes them as lights.119Scripture calls the sun and the moon lights because it refers to the light given off by them and not to their physical size. (17) AND GOD SET. Do not be surprised that Scripture states, And God set,120If the stars are above the firmament, why does Scripture state, And God set them in the firmament (Filwarg). According to Weiser the question is, “If the stars are set in the sky then why are they not visible there at all times?” for the Bible also says, I have set My bow in the cloud (Gen. 9:13).121The rainbow only appears to be in the cloud (Krinsky). Weiser interprets, “The rainbow is not always visible there.” Even so Scripture states, I have set My bow in the cloud (Gen. 9:13). (18) AND TO RULE. The day spoken of in the Torah begins at sunrise and lasts until sunset. Night begins when the stars are first visible. Those who say that night begins with the appearance of three stars are correct.122According to the Talmud (Sabbath 35b), night begins with the appearance of three stars. Know that evening begins at sunset and lasts for one and a third hours, during which time a light-like appearance is seen in the clouds. Similarly morning dawns before sunrise.123Morning dawns one and a third hours before sunrise (Krinsky). When the light of the sun shines during the day and the light of the moon at night, they separate between the light and the dark.124Thus and to divide the light from the darkness refers to both the sun and the moon. (20) AND GOD SAID. Yishritzu (let it swarm) is a transitive verb, as is sharatz (swarm) in And the river shall bring forth swarms of frogs (ve-sharatz) (Ex. 7:28).125In Gen. 9:7 and Ex. 1:7 swarm is intransitive. I.E. points out that here and in Exodus it is transitive. Therefore swarm may be either a transitive or an intransitive verb (Weiser). The meaning of Let the waters bring forth swarms of living creatures and let fowl fly above the earth is that the waters shall produce living beings that will immediately fly.126Filwarg. The verse And let fowl fly…in the open firmament of heaven proves my interpretation of the firmament.127According to I.E. the firmament is the air or atmosphere, not heaven. See I.E.’s comments on verse 6. The birds fly in the air, not among the spheres; thus raki’a cannot be the domain of the spheres (Cherez). Saadiah Gaon128Filwarg explains that according to Saadiah the stars are in the firmament which is in motion. Thus the fowl fly along with the firmament. It should be noted that Saadiah identifies the firmament with heaven. explains al pene (in the open) to mean with the face of. Hence, according to the Gaon, the heavens face down.129Scripture says that the birds fly on the face of the firmament. Since, according to Saadiah, the fowl fly along with the face of the firmament (heaven), then the firmament (heaven) faces down. This is absurd and shows how wrong Saadiah is. The feh of ye’ofef (let fly) is doubled like the nun in yekhonen (till He establish) (Is. 62:7).130An ayin vav has its final letter doubled in the pi’el. The root of ye’offe f is ayin, vav, peh. The root of yekhonen is caf, vav, nun. (21) AND GOD CREATED. The meaning of romeset (creepeth) is walks. Some are of the opinion that the sin of romeset is in place of a samekh.131The root resh mem samekh means to tread. Thus romes with a sin means the same as romes with a samekh. (22) AND GOD BLESSED. The meaning of Be fruitful, and multiply is, “You shall be fruitful and you shall multiply.” And die in the mount (Deut. 32:50) is similar because it is not in one’s power to determine the time of one’s death.132And die in the mount is to be rendered: and you shall die in the mount. For we cannot determine the time of our death. Similarly one can have intercourse but one cannot guarantee conception. Hence Be fruitful, and multiply, like and die, is not an imperative. (24) AND GOD SAID. Living creature is a general term for what the fire, water and earth gave birth to.133The basic elements according to medieval scientific belief. It also includes man.,CATTLE. Domesticated beasts that are utilized by man for their needs, for riding and for food.,AND CREEPING THING. Small animals that walk upon the earth.,AND BEAST OF THE EARTH. Animals that are in the wilderness where there are no human settlements. The vav at the end of ve-chayeto (and beast of) is superfluous. It is like the vav of le-mayeno (into a fountain) in into a fountain (le-mayeno) of waters (Ps. 114:8), and the vav in the son of (beno) Beor (Num. 24:3). (26) LET US MAKE MAN. Some are of the opinion that na’aseh (let us make) is a nifal participle134Na’aseh is not a first person plural future kal but rather a nifal participle. This interpretation eliminates the problem of God using a plural form when speaking of Himself. The verse is to be read as follows: And God said, Let a man be made (Cherez). and is to be compared to the same word in Now that which was prepared (na’aseh) for one day (Neh. 5:18).135Here na’aseh is definitely a nifal form. They further say that in our image, after our likeness are the words of Moses.136They interpret the verse as follows: God said, “Let a man be made.” Moses added: “in our image after our likeness,” i.e., in human form. This eliminates the problem of God having a human form. They also explain the pronominal suffix “his” in And God created man in His own image (v. 27) as referring to man,137The verse is to be explained as God created man in man’s own image. and connect God (in Gen. 9:6) to made rather than to image. They read this verse as follows: “For God made man in an image,” rather than “for in the image of God made He man.”138They read the verse, ki be-tzelem, Elohim asah et ha-adam. The usual and correct reading is, ki be-tzelem Elohim, asah et ha-adam. Cherez notes that the same interpretation applies to verse 27, i.e., be-tzelem, Elohim bara oto. Now this interpretation is absurd. According to it the first quoted verse should have read, “Let a man be made.”139If na’aseh adam means “Let (yehi) a man be made,” then the text should read yehi na’aseh adam. Similarly Scripture should have read, “He made him in his image.”140The reference is either to Gen. 9:6 (Netter) or 1:27 (Cherez). I.E.’s point is, why use such roundabout language to say that God made man in his (human) image when the Bible could have said this directly (Cherez). Vat. Ebr. 38 reads, “It should have stated, He made him in our image”; i.e., if “our image” relates to man’s image, 9:6 and 1:27 should have so read. Furthermore, how can the his in His image (v. 27) refer to man? If this were the case then man had an image before he was created.141If man was created in man’s image, then man had an image before he was created. This is obviously an impossibility. Finally, what sense would there be to Whoso sheddeth man’s blood, by man shall his blood be shed (Gen. 9:6), if the reason for the above is that man was made in an image? All living things have an image.142The verse stresses man’s uniqueness; i.e., he was created in God’s image. But if the verse speaks only of man having an image, animals, too, have an image. Wherein is the uniqueness of man? Saadiah Gaon explains in our image, after our likeness as referring to the dominion man exercises on earth.143Man rules over the world just as God rules over the universe (Weiser). He explains His image144Reading His image for image (Filwarg). as the image that God in His wisdom chose for man because He saw that this image was good for man. The Gaon further notes that Scripture connects image to God (be-tzelem Elohim) to stress man’s glorified state.145In the image of God (be-tzelem Elohim) means in the image chosen by God. A very precious image. Similarly Scripture states, and are gone forth out of His land (Ezek. 36:20). The Bible says this to emphasize the importance of the land of Israel because, in reality, The earth is the Lord’s, and the fullness thereof (Ps. 24:1).146All of the earth is in reality His land. There is thus no reason to call Israel “His land.” Hence the Torah calls the land of Israel “His land” in order to stress its importance. The Gaon also says that the word na’aseh (let us make) has the meaning of the singular even though it is in the plural because it is the plural of majesty.147Therefore Let us make really means: I will make. He offers as proof, and we will give thee the other also (Gen. 29:27); and we will tell the interpretation thereof before the king (Daniel 2:36); peradventure I shall prevail, that we may smite (nakkeh) them (Num. 22:6). However, these witnesses are false witnesses.148These verbs are not examples of the plural of Majesty. First of all, and we will give thee (ve-nittenah) (Gen. 29:27) is a nifal and its meaning is “the other will also be given thee.”149It is not a first person plural kal. It is like the word nittenah (is given) in and the city is given (nittenah) (Jer. 32:24). The vav conversive changes nittenah (she was given) to “she will be given (ve-nittenah),” as is the case with every verb in the perfect which becomes an imperfect when a vav conversive is prefixed to it. Similarly nakkeh bo (we may smite them) (Num. 22:6) means, “I and my army will smite them.”150In other words, nakkeh is not a plural of majesty. Further, nakkeh may be a pi’el infinitive151The nun of nakkeh (smite) is not the nun of the first person plural but is part of the root of the word nakkeh. The meaning of the word thus is to smite, rather than we will smite. meaning to smite, like nakeh (destroy)152Nakkeh is a pi’el infinitive. in But will not utterly destroy thee (ve-nakkeh lo anakkekah) (Jer. 46:28). The latter interpretation is supported by the fact that Scripture employs the phrase lo nukku (were not smitten) (Ex. 9:32), and a verb cannot come in the pu’a l unless it also comes in the pi’el.153Nukku (were smitten) is a pu’al. Pu’al is the passive of pi’el. If a verb is found in the pu’al it can also come in the pi’el, Hence smite can be a pi’el (Meijler). For alternate interpretations see Krinsky and Filwarg. Rabbi Moses Ha-kohen, the Spaniard, errs in his book.154Rabbi Moses ben Samuel Gikatila, an 11th century Bible commentator. It is not clear what error I.E. is referring to. Cf. Filwarg. Perhaps R. Moses also interpreted nakkeh as the plural of majesty. Similarly we will tell (Dan. 2:36) is Aramaic.155It is not a plural of majesty but the normal way of speaking in Aramaic (Krinsky). For if we will tell is a plural of majesty, how would Daniel dare to speak in such haughty terms before Nebuchadnezzar who was the “King of Kings”?I will now explain. Note that all the works of creation came into being by God’s command for the sake of man. Scripture relates that the earth and water brought forth plants and all living creatures. After all plants and living creatures had been created, God said to the angels, Let us make man; i.e., We, rather than the earth and water, will occupy ourselves with his creation. We know that the Torah spoke the language of man,156Berekhot 31b. for it was given to humans who speak and hear. Now a human being cannot speak of things above or below him without employing human terminology. Hence Scripture uses such terms as the mouth of the earth (Num. 16:30), the hand of the Jordan (Num. 13:29),157J.P.S. translates: the side of the Jordan. and the head158J.P.S. translates: beginning. of the dust of the world (Proverbs 8:26). Far be it from us to believe that God has an image.159On the basis of our verses reading, in our image, after our likeness. Scripture clearly refutes such a notion by stating, To whom then will you liken Me, that I should be equal (Is. 40:25). It is because man’s upper soul is eternal and is compared in its existence to God and because man’s soul is incorporeal and fills the body, which is a microcosm, in the same way that God fills the universe that Scripture states, in our image, after our likeness. May God’s name be blessed. He commenced with the macrocosm and concluded with the microcosm.160Man. The account of creation begins with the creation of the “large world,” the universe, and concludes with the creation of the “small world,” man. “Man is a microcosm, a universe in little, for like the great universe he consists of a body animated by a soul” (Husik, p. 191). The prophet also says that he saw God’s glory appear in human form (Ezek. 1:26).161Hence Ezekiel, like Moses, employed human terminology in speaking of God (Weiser). God is one. He is the creator of all. He is all. I cannot explain further.162I.E. “seems to favor the idea of eternal creation and maintenance of the universe, the relation of which to God is as the relation of speech to the speaker, which exists only so long as the speaker speaks. The moment he ceases speaking the sounds cease to exist” (Husik, p. 190). The mystery of God being “All” is difficult to comprehend and lends itself to misinterpretation. It might lead one to believe in pantheism. Man was originally created with two faces;163Hence there is no contradiction in Scripture stating, created He him, and then saying, created He them (Meijler). Weiser explains that I.E.’s interpretation is in keeping with the Rabbinic tradition that man was originally androgynous (Erubin 18a). Levine (p. 135) suggests that I.E. speaks of man’s dual nature; i.e., he has a body and a soul. man is thus one but also two. In the image of God means in the image of the angels. Man was created both male and female.164The angels are of only one sex, man is of two. Nevertheless, man was created in the image of the angels. The words Be fruitful, and multiply are a blessing not a command,165According to the rabbis of the Talmud there is a commandment to “be fruitful and multiply.” Cf. Kiddushin 35a. just as they are with regard to the creatures brought forth by the waters (Gen. 1:22).166Obviously no command is addressed to animals. Nevertheless, there is in fact a commandment to be fruitful and multiply transmitted by our sages, of blessed memory, which they attached to this verse in order to remember the commandment.167According to I.E. when a Rabbinic interpretation is not in keeping with the literal meaning of the verse, then the verse is to be interpreted literally, and the Rabbinic interpretation accepted as true in itself but not as being derived from the verse. The verse merely serves as a peg on which to attach an authentic tradition. (29) AND GOD SAID: BEHOLD I HAVE GIVEN YOU. God permitted mankind and every living thing to eat all herbs. He also permitted man to eat the fruits of the trees and limited the animals and creeping things to green herbs. At this point in time the consumption of flesh was not permitted. That came after the flood. (31) THE SIXTH DAY. Some say that the word yom (day) is in the construct with sixth,168If sixth were an adjective then yom should have a definite article prefixed to it, i.e., ha-yom ha-shishi rather than yom ha-shishi, as in Deut. 3:25 ha-har ha-tov (that goodly hill-country); or both yom and shishi should be written without a heh, as in yom sheni (a second day). Hence yom ha-sheshi means the day of the sixth (Filwarg). and the meaning of yom ha-shishi (the sixth day) is the day of the sixth sphere.169That is, the day when the sixth heavenly sphere (the sphere of Jupiter) exerts an astrological influence on the earth. They say the same with regard to yom ha-shevi’i (the seventh day). However, they are wrong. Proof of their error is found in the teaching of the astrologers who tell us who the lord170That is, the dominant sphere. of the sixth day is.171The astrologers say that the sphere of Venus is dominant on the sixth day (Weiser). Venus is the third sphere (Cherez). It should be noted that in the Romance languages Friday is called Venus’s day. Thus in Italian, Friday is known as venerdi and in French as vendredi. The meaning of yom ha-shishi, then, is the sixth day from day one. This is also the meaning of the seventh day. We similarly find172Where the noun is not preceded by a heh and the adjective is (Filwarg). ish ha-yisraeli (the Israelite man) (Leviticus 24:10)173J.P.S. translates: a man of Israel, taking man to be in the construct with Israel. and many such cases, among them reki’a ha-shamayim (Gen. 1:20),174J.P.S. renders: firmament of heaven, taking firmament to be in the construct with heaven. which should be rendered as “the firmament which is heaven.” (1) WERE FINISHED. Va-yekhullu is a pu’al. It follows the paradigm of va-yekhussu (were covered) in and all the high mountains…were covered (Gen. 7:19). Its meaning is: were finished. The earth includes the oceans since they form one entity.1Hence Scripture states, And the heaven and the earth were finished, rather than, And the heaven, the earth and the oceans were finished. (2) AND ON THE SEVENTH DAY GOD FINISHED. Some say2And on the seventh day God finished implies that God created something on the seventh day. The question is what? that the days are created entities, and with the creation of the seventh day God’s work was finished. However, this interpretation is unpalatable. Others say that the bet may indicate before, as in Thou shalt not muzzle the ox when he treadeth out (be-disho) the corn (Deut. 25:4), and in howbeit the first day (ba-yom ha-rishon) ye shall put away leaven out of your houses (Ex. 12:15).3And on the seventh day God finished is to be translated as And by the seventh day God had finished His work which He had made. They similarly translate Deut. 25:4, Thou shalt not muzzle the ox before he treadeth out the corn, and render Ex. 12:15 as howbeit before the first day ye shall put away leaven out of your houses. However, why go through all this trouble4Why give the bet a novel meaning (before) when in fact “finished” does not imply that any work was done on the Sabbath. when finishing work does not constitute an act. Saying God finished is equivalent to saying God did no work. This is the meaning of God finished and of and He rested.5Both mean God did no work.,His work which He had made refers to the work that he had done on Friday prior to the onset of the Sabbath. ,And He rested on the seventh day from all His work pertains to all creations that God brought into being.6In other words part A of verse 2 refers to Friday, part B to the six days of creation. This also explains the reason why part A of the verse reads, His work and part B, all His work. Thus part B complements part A and is not redundant (Krinsky). (3) AND GOD BLESSED. A blessing means an increase in well being. On the Sabbath the body is blessed with a renewal of its reproductive strength and the soul with an increase in its intellectual and reasoning capabilities.,AND HALLOWED IT. No work was done on the Sabbath, in contrast to the other six days.,[WHICH GOD IN CREATING HAD MADE.] Its meaning is: God placed in the root of all the species the power to reproduce themselves.7I.E. explains asher bara Elohim la’asot (which God in creating had made) as follows: God created (bara) his creation in such a way that they would do (la’asot), i.e., reproduce themselves in the future. That is why bara is a perfect and la’asot is an infinitive (Cherez). I disagree with the person who explains la’asot (had made) as having the same meaning as made8They interpret asher bara Elohim la’asot to mean, which God created and made. They maintain that la’asot, an infinitive, is to be interpreted as asah, a perfect (Filwarg). They also do not differentiate between bara and asah, and interpret “made” in verse 2 as created (Filwarg, Krinsky). For I.E.’s interpretation of bara see Gen. 1:1; for asah see verse 4. and who, furthermore, insists that created and made are synonymous. Saadiah Gaon explains that the blessing and the holiness spoken of in this verse refer to those who observe the Sabbath.9According to Saadiah the blessing refers not to the Sabbath but rather to those who observe the Sabbath. We have translated according to Nachmanides’ rendering of I.E., which had a vav before sanctified. They will be blessed and sanctified.

(1) IN THE BEGINNING G-D CREATED. Rabbi Yitzchak said: The Torah, which is the book of laws, should have begun with the verse, This month shall be unto you the first of the months,1Exodus 12:2. which is the first commandment given to Israel.2It is true the book of Genesis contains three commandments (1:28; 17:10; 32:33), but after the Revelation on Sinai these laws became incumbent upon Israel. Hence the verse this month, etc., is “the first commandment given to Israel” as a people. What then is the reason that it begins with the creation? Should the nations of the world say to Israel, “You are robbers because you took unto yourselves the lands of the seven nations of Canaan,” they [Israel] may reply to them, “The whole world belongs to the Holy One, blessed be He. He gave it to whom He pleased, and according to His Will, He took it [the land] from them and gave it to us.”This is a homiletic exposition3Found in Tanchuma (Buber), Bereshith 11. See also Rashi (Berliner) p. 424. as quoted by Rabbi Shlomo [Rashi] in his commentaries.One may object that it was indeed very necessary to begin the Torah with the chapter of In the beginning G-d created for this is the root of faith, and he who does not believe in this and thinks the world was eternal denies the essential principle of the [Judaic] religion and has no Torah at all.4A person who thinks the world is eternal cannot believe in miracles since, if G-d did not create the world, He cannot possibly change it. Ramban explains in many places (e.g., see further, 17:1; 46:15) that all Divine promises concerning the blessings or imprecations which will follow upon our observance or disregard of the Torah are miraculous in nature of “invisible miracles.” A person who believes that the world is eternal thus has “no Torah at all.” See further my English work, Ramban: His Life and Teachings, Chapter 13.The answer is that the process of creation is a deep mystery not to be understood from the verses, and it cannot truly be known except through the tradition going back to Moses our teacher who received it from the mouth of the Almighty, and those who know it are obligated to conceal it.5Chagigah 11 b: “The process of Creation may not be expounded before two.” It is for this reason that Rabbi Yitzchak said that it was not necessary for the Torah to begin with the chapter of In the beginning G-d created and the narration of what was created on the first day, what was done on the second and other days, as well as a prolonged account of the creation of Adam and Eve, their sin and punishment, and the story of the Garden of Eden and the expulsion of Adam from it, because all this cannot be understood completely from the verses. It is all the more unnecessary for the story of the generations of the flood and of the dispersion to be written in the Torah for there is no great need of these narratives, and, for people who believe in the Torah, it would suffice without these verses. They would believe in the general statement mentioned to them in the Ten Commandments: For in six days the Eternal made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that is in them, and rested on the seventh day,6Exodus 20:11. and the knowledge of the process of creation would remain with individuals as a tradition from Moses who received the law on Sinai together with the Oral Torah.Rabbi Yitzchak then gave a reason for it. The Torah began with the chapter of In the beginning G-d created and recounted the whole subject of creation until the making of man, how He [G-d] granted him dominion over the works of His hands, and that He put all things under his feet;7See Psalms 8:7. and how the Garden of Eden, which is the choicest of places created in this world, was made the place of his abode until his sin caused his expulsion therefrom; and how the people of the generation of the flood were completely expelled from the world on account of their sin, and the only righteous one among them — he [Noah] and his children — were saved; and how the sin of their descendants caused them to be scattered to various places and dispersed to different countries, and how subsequently they seized unto themselves places after their families, in their nations,8Genesis 10:5. as chance permitted. If so, it is proper that when a people continues to sin it should lose its place and another people should come to inherit its land, for such has been the rule of G-d in the world9The Hebrew word ba’aretz (world) may also refer here to “the land,” especially the Land of Israel. See Ramban further, 26:5. from the beginning. This is true all the more regarding that which is related in Scripture, namely that Canaan was cursed and sold as a servant forever.10Genesis 9:25. It would therefore not be proper that he inherit the choicest of places of the civilized world. Rather, the servants of G-d — the seed of His beloved one, Abraham11See Isaiah 41:8. — should inherit it, even as it is written, And He gave them the lands of the nations, and they took the labor of the peoples in possession; that they might keep His statutes, and observe His laws.12Psalms 105:44-45. That is to say, He expelled those who rebelled against Him, and settled therein those who served Him so that they know by serving Him they will inherit it, whereas if they sin against Him, the land will vomit them out, just as it vomited out the nation before them.13See Leviticus 18:28.Elucidating the explanation I have written are the words of the Sages in Bereshith Rabbah, wherein they say as follows:141:3. “Rabbi Yehoshua, of the city of Siknin, in the name of Rabbi Levi opened [his discourse on this chapter of Creation with the verse]: He hath declared to His people the power of His works.15Psalms 111:6. Why did the Holy One, blessed be He, reveal to Israel what was created on the first day and what was created on the second day? It is on account of the seven nations who inhabited the land of Canaan, so that they should not taunt Israel and say to them: ‘Are you not a nation of robbers?’ Israel could then reply to them: ‘And you, is it not booty in your hands? Have not the Caphtorim that came forth from Caphtor destroyed them and dwelt in their stead?16Deuteronomy 2:23. The world and the fullness thereof belong to the Holy One, blessed be He. When He willed it, He gave it to you, and when He willed it, He took it from you and gave it to us.’ It is this which Scripture says, To give them the heritage of the nations.15Psalms 111:6. He hath declared to His people the power of His works in order to give them the heritage of the nations. Hence He told them the account of creation.”There is yet another source for the subject I have mentioned: the mysteries in the process of creation. It is what our Rabbis of blessed memory have said:17This Midrash is quoted by Rambam in his Preface to Moreh Nebuchim. See Batei Midrashoth, ed. Wertheimer, I, p. 251. “He hath declared to His people the power of His works.15Psalms 111:6. To declare the power of the process of creation to a mortal being is impossible. Therefore, Scripture closed the matter: In the beginning G-d created.” Thus is elucidated what we have said on this subject.18That the details in the process of creation and the settlement of the earth were written for the purpose of justifying Israel’s possession of the land while the essential process of creation itself remains a mystery.,IN THE BEGINNING G-D CREATED. Rashi wrote: “This verse calls aloud for elucidation,19The difficulties in the verse are: (a) The word bereshith (in the beginning) appears throughout the Bible in a construct form such as: In the beginning of the reign of Jehoiakim (Jeremiah 27:1). But here it cannot be in construct form since such a form can be used only in connection with a noun, and the word bara (He created) is a verb. (b) Again, it cannot be said that here bereshith is actually in a construct form and that a missing noun is implied, thus making the sense of the verse, “in the beginning of all, G—d created…,” for if so, the following difficulty presents itself: since Scripture, according to this interpretation, sets out to tell us the order in which things were created, why does it say in Verse 2 And the spirit of G-d hovered over the face of the waters when it has not yet told us when water was created? Hence Rashi turns to a Midrashic interpretation in which the word reshith is another name for the Torah and Israel. The word bereshith is thus not in a construct form but stands by itself, and the sense conveyed is: “For the sake of that which is reshith [Torah and Israel] G-d created.” as our Rabbis have explained it:20Bereshith Rabbah 1:6; Tanchuma (Buber) Bereshith 3. “For the sake of Torah which is called reshith, as it is said, The Eternal made me as ‘reshith’ (the beginning) of His way,21Proverbs 8:22. and for the sake of Israel who is called reshith, as it is said, Israel is the Eternal’s hallowed portion, the ‘reshith’ (first-fruits) of His increase.”22Jeremiah 2:3.This Midrash of our Rabbis is very hidden and secret for there are many things the Rabbis found that are called reshith and concerning which they give Midrashic interpretations, and those wanting in faith count their multitude. For example, they [the Rabbis] have said:23Bereshith Rabbah 1:6. “For the merit acquired by [fulfilling the commandments associated with] three things has the world been created: for the merit of the Dough-offering, for the merit of Tithes and for the merit of the First-fruits. In the beginning G-d created. Reshith surely signifies the Dough-offering, as it is said, The first of your dough.24Numbers 15:20. Reshith surely signifies the Tithes, as it is said, The first of thy corn.25Deuteronomy 18:4. Reshith surely signifies the First-fruits, as it is said, The first-fruits of thy land.”26Exodus 23:19.The Rabbis have further said:23Bereshith Rabbah 1:6. “For the merit acquired by Moses [the world has been created], as it is said, And he chose a first part for himself.”27Deuteronomy 33:21. Reference here is to Moses who took the territory of Kings Sihon and Og as he knew that his grave was to be therein. (See Rashi, ibid.) It was thus for the sake of this meritorious person, of whom reshith was said, that the world was created.Their intent in the above texts is as follows: the word bereshith alludes to the creation of the world by Ten Emanations, and hints in particular to the emanation called Wisdom, in which is the foundation of everything, even as it says, The Eternal hath founded the earth by wisdom.28Proverbs 3:19. This is the Heave-offering [referred to in the Midrash mentioned above], and it is holy; it has no precise measure,29By law of the Torah, the Heave-offering given to the priest has no fixed measure; the owner may give according to his discretion. “Even one grain frees the whole mound” (Kiddushin 58 b). Similarly, our conception of Divine wisdom is infinitesimal in relation to its true scope. thus indicating the little understanding created beings have of it. Now just as a man counts ten measures — this alludes to the Ten Emanations — and sets aside one measure of the ten as a Tithe, so do the wise men contemplate the tenth Emanation and speak about it. The Dough-offering, which is the single commandment pertaining to the dough, alludes to this. Now Israel, which is called reshith as mentioned above, is “the congregation of Israel,” which is compared in the Song of Songs to a bride and whom Scripture in turn calls “daughter,” “sister” and “mother.” The Rabbis have already expressed this in a homiletic interpretation of the verse, Upon the crown wherewith his mother hath crowned him,30Song of Songs 3:11. and in other places. Similarly, the verse concerning Moses, And he chose a first part for himself,27Deuteronomy 33:21. Reference here is to Moses who took the territory of Kings Sihon and Og as he knew that his grave was to be therein. (See Rashi, ibid.) It was thus for the sake of this meritorious person, of whom reshith was said, that the world was created. which they [the Rabbis in the above Midrash] interpret to mean that Moses our teacher contemplated [the Deity] through a lucid speculum,31So clearly stated in Yebamoth 49b. and he saw that which is called reshith (the first) for himself, and therefore he merited the Torah. Thus all the above Midrashim have one meaning. Now it is impossible to discuss this explanation at length in writing, and even an allusion is dangerous since people might have thoughts concerning it which are untrue. But I have mentioned this [i.e., the above brief explanation] in order to close the mouths of those wanting in faith and of little wisdom, who scoff at the words of our Rabbis.,IN THE BEGINNING. Rashi wrote: “If you wish to explain it [the word bereshith] in accordance with its plain meaning, explain it thus: at the beginning of the creation of the heaven and earth, and the earth was formless and void and there was darkness, the Holy One, blessed be He, said, Let there be light.” If so, the whole text leads into the creation of light.Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra explained it in an identical way. However, he established that the letter vav in the word veha’aretz (and the earth) does not şerve [as a connecting letter as it normally does and which would mean “and,” but it serves rather as the word “when.”] There are many such examples in Scripture. The meaning then according to Rabbi Abraham would be: at the beginning of the creation of heaven and dry land, there was no habitable place on earth; rather, it was unformed and void and covered with water, and G-d said, Let there be light. According to Abraham ibn Ezra’s opinion, only light32According to Rashi in Verse 6 (also 2:4), the sun, etc., was also created on the first day. was created on the first day.The difficulty which Rabbi Shlomo [Rashi] had which led him to the above interpretation is, as he said: For if Scripture intended to teach the order in which the acts of creation took place, it should have written barishonah [instead of bereshith], since wherever the word reshith occurs in Scripture it is in the construct state. But there is the verse, Declaring the end ‘mereshith’ [from the beginning].33Isaiah 46:10. Here the word reshith is not in the construct state. And if one will connect it with the missing word davar [thing — thus making the verse read: “Declaring the end of a thing from the beginning of a thing”—] here too it could be connected to a missing word.34Thus reading: Bereshith kol, (In the beginning of everything [G—d created]). There is also the verse, And he chose ‘reshith’ (a first part) for himself.27Deuteronomy 33:21. Reference here is to Moses who took the territory of Kings Sihon and Og as he knew that his grave was to be therein. (See Rashi, ibid.) It was thus for the sake of this meritorious person, of whom reshith was said, that the world was created. [Here again the word reshith is not used in the construct state.] And Rashi raised other objections.Now listen to the correct and clear explanation of the verse in its simplicity. The Holy One, blessed be He, created all things from absolute non-existence. Now we have no expression in the sacred language for bringing forth something from nothing other than the word bara (created). Everything that exists under the sun or above was not made from non-existence at the outset. Instead He brought forth from total and absolute nothing a very thin substance devoid of corporeality but having a power of potency, fit to assume form and to proceed from potentiality into reality. This was the primary matter created by G-d; it is called by the Greeks hyly (matter). After the hyly, He did not create anything, but He formed and made things with it, and from this hyly He brought everything into existence and clothed the forms and put them into a finished condition.Know that the heavens and all that is in them consist of one substance, and the earth and everything that is in it consist of one substance. The Holy One, blessed be He, created these two substances from nothing;35Such is also the theory of Rambam: “All things on earth have one common substance; the heavens and the things in them have one substance different from the first” (Moreh Nebuchim II, 26). they alone were created, and everything else was constructed from them.This substance, which the Greeks called hyly, is called in the sacred language tohu, the word being derived from the expression of the Sages:36Kiddushin 40b. “betohei (when the wicked bethinks himself) of his doings in the past.” If a person wants to decide a name for it [this primordial matter], he may bethink himself, change his mind and call it by another name since it has taken on no form to which the name should be attached. The form which this substance finally takes on is called in the sacred language bohu, which is a composite word made up of the two words bo hu (in it there is [substance]). This may be compared to the verse, Thou art not able ‘asohu’ (to perform it),37Exodus 18:18. in which case the word asohu is missing a vav and an aleph [and is a composite of the two words] aso hu. It is this which Scripture says, And he shall stretch over it the line of ‘tohu’ (confusion) and the stones of ‘bohu.’38Isaiah 34:11. “The stones,” which are forms in the building (as explained later on by Ramban), thus constitute substance as expressed in the Hebrew bohu. [The tohu in Hebrew or hyly in Greek] is the line by which the craftsman delineates the plan of his structure and that which he hopes to make. This is derived from the expression, Kavei (Hope) unto G-d.39Psalms 27:14. The stones are forms in the building. Similarly it is written, They are accounted by Him as nought and ‘tohu,’40Isaiah 40:17. as tohu comes after nothingness and there is nothing yet in it.So the Rabbis have also said in Sefer Yetzirah:412:6. Sefer Yetzirah (Book of Creation) is one of the earliest Hebrew books of the Cabala tradition. (See introduction to Bereshith, Note 56.) Some of the profoundest mystic commentaries have been written on this book. See my Hebrew work, Kithvei Haramban, Vol. 2, pp. 451-461. “He created substance from tohu, and made that which was nothing something.”They have furthermore said in the Midrash of Rabbi Nechunya ben Hakanah:42Called also Sefer Habahir (Book of the Bright Light), 2. This book too is a classic in the mystic teachings of the Cabala. It was written in the style and manner of the Midrashim. “Rabbi Berachyah said: ‘What is the meaning of the verse, And the earth was ‘tohu’ (without form) ‘vavohu’ (and void)? What is the meaning of the word “was?” It had already been tohu. And what is tohu? It is a thing which astonishes people. It was then turned into bohu. And what is bohu? It is a thing which has substance, as it is written, [bohu is a composite of the two words] ‘bo hu’ (in it there is substance).’”,AND ‘ELOKIM’ (G-D) SAID. The word Elokim means “the Master of all forces,” for the root of the word is e-il, meaning force, and the word Elokim is a composite consisting of the words e-il heim, as if the word e-il is in a construct state, and heim, [literally] “they,” alludes to all other forces. Thus Elokim means “the Force of all forces.” A secret will yet be disclosed in connection with this.43See Ramban, Exodus 20:3.If so, the simple correct explanation of the verse is as follows: In the beginning44Ramban thus indicates his opinion that the word bereshith is not in a construct state. This is contrary to Rashi, as explained above. G-d created the heavens means He brought forth their matter from nothing; and the earth means that He brought forth its matter from nothing. And the earth, includes all the four elements,45Fire, wind, water, and earth. [not merely the land] as in the verse, And the heaven and the earth were finished,46Genesis 2:1. which includes the entire lower sphere, and in Praise the Eternal from the earth, ye sea-monsters, and all deeps,47Psalms 148:7. and as in many other verses. Now with this creation, which was like a very small point having no substance, everything in the heavens and on the earth was created. The word eth —[eth hashamayim ve’eth ha’aretz] — is like “the essence of a thing.” The Sages have always set it forth as serving to include,48Pesachim 22b. since it is derived from the expression, The morning ‘atha’ (cometh), and also the night.49Isaiah 21:12. And so did our Rabbis say:50Bereshith Rabbah 1:19. “‘Eth hashamayim (the heavens)’ — eth includes the sun, moon, stars and constellations. ‘Ve’eth ha’aretz (and the earth)’ — ve’eth includes the trees, herbs, and the Garden of Eden.” These include all created things which are corporeal.Now after having said that with one command G-d created at first the heavens and the earth and all their hosts, Scripture returns and explains that the earth after this creation was tohu, that is, matter without substance. It became bohu when He clothed it with form. Then it [Scripture] explains that in this form was included the form of the four elements: fire, water, earth, and air. The word ha’aretz (the earth) includes these four elements. In this verse, the element of fire is called “darkness”51And darkness was upon the face of the deep. So also explained in the Moreh Nebuchim, II:30: “By Choshech the element fire is meant, nothing else.” Ramban’s reasoning on this point is also found there. because the elemental fire is dark. Were it red, it would redden the night for us. The element of water with which the dust was kneaded is here called “deep.”51And darkness was upon the face of the deep. So also explained in the Moreh Nebuchim, II:30: “By Choshech the element fire is meant, nothing else.” Ramban’s reasoning on this point is also found there. This is why the waters of the oceans are called “the deeps,” as it is written, The deeps cover them;52Exodus 15:15. The deeps were congealed;53Ibid., 8. The deep was round about me.54Jonah 2:6. The bottom of the ocean is also referred to as “deep:” And He rebuked the Red Sea, and it was dried up, and He led them through the depths, as a wilderness;55Psalms 106:9. He led them through the deep as a horse in the wilderness.56Isaiah 63:13. And the element air is here called “spirit.”57And the spirit of G-d hovered over the face of the waters.Now it is already known that the four elements fill up the whole space with matter.58“This sphere in its totality is composed of the celestial orbs, the four elements and their combinations; there is no vacuum whatever therein, but the whole space is filled up with matter.” (Guide of the Perplexed, Friedlander’s translation, I, 72.) That which stands still is the sphere of earth. The waters surround the earth, the air encompasses the waters, and the fire envelopes the air.59From the language of Rambam, ibid. It is to be noted that Ramban follows Yehudah al Charizi’s translation of Rambam’s philosophic work and not that of Shmuel ibn Tibbon. See my Hebrew work, The Life of Ramban, pp. 23-24, on the far-reaching significance of this point. Scripture thus states that the earth took on form, and the fire above enveloped the intermingled waters and dust, and the wind blew and rose in the darkness and hovered over the waters.It appears to me that this [primeval] point, [which G-d created out of absolute nought], which took on form and became bohu, is what the Sages call:60Yoma 54b. This “foundation rock” is the stone on which the Ark of the Covenant rested in the Holy of Holies in King Solomon’s Temple. “‘The rock of foundation’ from which the world was founded.”The purport of the verses is thus: In the beginning G-d created the heavens from nought, and He created the earth from nought. The earth, when created, was tohu and then it became bohu, and in these there were “darkness” [i.e., fire, as explained above], water, dust and the wind blowing upon the water. Thus everything was created and made. The reason why ruach (wind) is attached to the name of G-d [as it says, and the spirit of God] is that it is the least substantial of all elements61Although fire is thinner than wind, since the element of fire is alluded to in the verse by the word “darkness,” as explained above, it would not be fitting to attach it to the name of G—d. (Bachya). and is above them, hovering upon the face of the waters only by command of the Holy One, blessed be He.In case you seek information concerning the creation of the incorporeal angels, you will not find it explained in the Torah. The Sages, however, have explained concerning them that they were created on the second day, so that you should not say that they assisted in the creation of the world.62Bereshith Rabbah 3:11. But if you will merit and understand the secret of the word bereshith and why Scripture does not begin by saying, “G-d created in the beginning,” you will know that, in the way of truth,63A reference to the true wisdom of the Cabala which enables one to grasp the mysteries of the Torah. Scripture tells about the lower creations and alludes to the higher ones and that the word bereshith refers covertly to the Emanation called Wisdom, which is the head of all beginnings, as I have mentioned. This is why they translated bereshith in the Jerusalem Targum to mean “in wisdom,” and the word is adorned in the Torah with a crown on the letter beth.64The adornment on the top of the letter beth hints at the Kether (Crown) above, from which all emanations issue. It is also referred to as Ein Sof (the Infinite). See my Hebrew commentary, p. 15. (3) AND G-D SAID, ‘LET THERE BE LIGHT.’ The word “saying” here indicates Will, as in the verse, What dost thy soul say, that I should do it for thee?65I Samuel 20:4. which means, “What do you want and desire?” Similarly, And let her be thy master’s son’s wife, as the Eternal hath spoken66Genesis 24:51. means, “…as He hath willed, for such is the Will before Him.” Or, it may be [that the word “saying” here means] “thinking,” as in the verses, Thou sayest in thy heart;67Isaiah 47:8. And the chiefs of Judah shall say in their heart.68Zechariah 12:5. The purport is to state that the creation was not done with toil. Our Rabbis have also called this “thought.” Thus they have said:69Bereshith Rabbah 12:14. “The thought [concerning what was to be created on a particular day] was during the day; the deed itself was at sunset.” This teaches that creation was thought out, that there is a reason for everything created, that creation was not a simple manifestation of mere Will alone.The word “being” [Let there ‘be’] indicates a deed for the present time,70Thus unlike Rashi and R’dak (Rabbi David Kimchi), who hold that the reference here is to the creation of the luminaries, such as the sun, moon, etc., which were not suspended in the firmament until the fourth day (see Rashi, Verse 14), Ramban explains that the light of the first day was of a special substance; hence Scripture does not say, And it was so, since that light did not remain forever in its original state. just as: And thou wouldst be their king71Nehemiah 6:6. [meaning: their king from this moment on]. Therefore Scripture says that when He created the substance of the heavens, He said that from that substance there should come forth a shining matter called “light.”,AND THERE WAS LIGHT. The verse does not say, “And it was so,” as it is said on other days, because the light did not remain in this state all the time, as did the other creations. Concerning this matter, our Rabbis have an interpretation with a profound secret.72Ramban’s hint here is to the Sefer Habahir, 190. See my Hebrew commentary pp. 15—16.Know that the term “day” as used in the story of the creation was, in the case of the creation of heaven and earth, a real day, composed of hours and seconds, and there were six days like the six days of the workweek, as is the plain meaning of the verse. In the profounder sense, the Emanations issuing from the Most High are called “days,” for every Divine Saying73The tenfold expression, And G-d said, found in the chapter of Creation. which evoked an existence is called “day.” These were six, for Unto G-d there is the greatness, and the power, etc.74I Chronicles 29:11. The Sayings,73The tenfold expression, And G-d said, found in the chapter of Creation. however, are ten because regarding the first three Emanations, the term “day” does not apply at all. The explanation of the order of the verses in terms of this profound interpretation is sublime and recondite. Our knowledge of it is less than that of a drop from the vast ocean. (4) AND G-D SAW THE LIGHT, THAT IT WAS GOOD. Rabbi Shlomo [Rashi] wrote: “Here too75A reference to Rashi’s similar comment on the first word of the Torah — bereshith (see above). The difficulty here in the text is twofold: (a) It is first written, and darkness was upon the face of the deep, and then G—d said, Let there be light. Thus there already was a separation between light and darkness. Why then does Scripture continue by stating, and G—d divided the light from the darkness? (b) Concerning all other acts of creation, the expression “And G—d saw that it was good” is found at the completion of the act of creation, while here this phrase is written (in the beginning of Verse 4) before the completion. The Agadah, which Rashi quotes, answers: (a) vayavdel means here that He set apart the light for the righteous in the world to come. (b) ki tov (that it was good) could not have been written after the separation of the light for the righteous from the ordinary light, since the remaining light was no longer perfect. Therefore, ki tov is mentioned before the setting aside of the light. we must depend on the words of the homiletic Agadah G-d saw that the wicked were unworthy of using the light, and so He set it aside for the righteous in the World to Come. But according to the plain meaning of the verse, explain it thus: He saw that the light was good, and that it was not seemly for it and the darkness to function in a confused manner. He therefore assigned the one’s sphere of activity to the daytime and the one’s sphere of activity to the nighttime.”And Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra said: “The word vayar (and He saw) has the same meaning here as in Vera’iti ani (And I saw),76Daniel 10:7. which refers to the thought in the heart. And He divided refers to His giving them different names.”77Ibn Ezra’s opinion is thus that the division was not because it was unseemly that the light and darkness function in a confused manner, but it was for the purpose of assigning each one a separate name.But the words of both Rashi and Ibn Ezra are incorrect for if they were, it would appear that there was on the part of G-d a change of mind and new counsel, as if to say that after G-d said, ‘Let there be light’ and there was light, He saw that it was good, and therefore He divided between it and darkness just as a human being who does not know the nature of something until it comes into existence! Rather, the order followed in the process of creation is that the bringing forth of things into actual existence is called amirah (saying). Thus: And G-d said, ‘Let there be light;’ And G-d said, ‘Let there be a firmament;’78Verse 6. And G-d said, ‘Let the earth put forth grass.’79Verse 11. And the permanence of things called forth into existence is called re’iyah (seeing), as And I saw in Ecclesiastes,802:13. and similarly, And the woman saw that the tree was good for food.81Genesis 3:6. In the language of the Rabbis we also find, “I see the words of Admon.”82Kethuboth 109a. Likewise, And the king said unto Zadok the priest, ‘Seest thou? return into the city in peace.’83II Samuel 15:27. The purport of the word “seeing” is thus to indicate that their continuing existence is at His Will, and if that Will should for a second depart from them, they will turn into nought. Now just as Scripture says in connection with the work of each day, And G-d saw that it was good and on the sixth day when everything was completed it says, And G-d saw everything that He had made, and behold, it was very good,84Verse 31. so does it say on the first day when light came into existence, And G-d saw … that it was good, meaning He desired its existence forever. The verse adds “the light” [And G-d saw ‘the light’ that it was good], because had it just said, “And G-d saw that it was good,” it would have referred to the creation of the heaven and the earth, and at that time He had not yet decreed for them permanence, as they did not remain as they were. Instead, from the substance created on the first day, the firmament was made on the second day, and on the third the waters and the dust were separated and the dry land — which He called “earth” — was formed. He then decreed for them permanence, and said concerning them, And G-d saw that it was good.85Verse 10.,AND G-D DIVIDED THE LIGHT FROM THE DARKNESS. This is not “the darkness” mentioned in the first verse86“First verse.” It is actually mentioned in Verse 2. However, in view of Ramban’s interpretation above that the first two verses tell of everything else to come, he refers to Verse 2 as “the first verse.” which, as explained above, refers to the element of fire; rather, the “darkness” mentioned here means the absence of light, since G-d gave a length of time to the light and decreed that it be absent afterwards until it returns.Now some commentators87Reference here is to Yehuda Halevi who, in his philosophic work Al Khazari, sets forth this theory: The first light was created at the time of sunset, and it was an illumination which soon passed away, leaving the world in darkness. The established order was then that night preceded day, as it is written, It was evening and it was morning (2:20, Hirschfeld’s translation). See also my Hebrew commentary, 2d edition, p. 547, that Ramban may also refer here to Rabbeinu Zerachyah Halevi, who was of a similar opinion. have said that this light was created in front of the Holy One, blessed be He, that is to say, in the west,88In accordance with the opinion of Rabbi Abahu who says, “The Divine Presence is in the West” (Baba Bathra 25a). and He immediately caused it to disappear for the period of the night, and afterwards it gave light for the period of the day. This is the reason for the verse, And there was evening and there was morning, since the night came first and afterwards the day, and both of them came after the existence of the light.But this is not correct at all, for in this way they might add a short day to the six days of creation.89Since night and day were after the creation of light, and light was created at the time of sunset, it follows that there was a short day (that is, light without darkness) preceding the first day. Thus a short day is added to the six days of creation. It is possible, however, to say that the light was created in front of Him, blessed be He, but did not extend over the four elements mentioned [in the second verse, as explained above] and then He divided between it and the darkness by assigning to each a certain period. Light now remained before Him for the length of night, and then in the morning, He caused the light to shine upon the elements. In this way night preceded day.It is further possible that we should say that when the heavens and the earth came forth from nought into existence, as mentioned in the first verse, time came into being, for although our time consisting of minutes and hours is measured in light and darkness, yet from the moment some substance came into existence time was already part of it. If so, after the heavens and the earth were created they so remained for the length of a night without light. Then He said, ‘Let there be light,’ and there was light, and He decreed that it remain the same period as the first, and that after that it be absent from the elements. Thus, there was evening, and there was morning. (5) AND G-D CALLED THE LIGHT DAY. The verse states that time was created, and G-d made the length of the day and the length of the night.The purport of the word vayikra (And He called) is [to indicate that] since Adam later gave names [to all the beasts, the fowl, etc.],90Further,2:20. it states that those things which were made before his existence were given names by G-d. This is the opinion of Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra.91In Verse 8.The correct interpretation is that the matter of calling a name here indicates the division which bounded them when they assumed their form. Thus did the Rabbis say:92Bereshith Rabbah 3:7. “[G-d said to the light,] ‘The day shall be your boundary,’ [and to darkness He said,] ‘The night shall be your boundary.’”,AND THERE WAS EVENING AND THERE WAS MORNING. There was evening and there was morning of one day. The beginning of the night is called erev [which also means “mingling”] because shapes of things appear confused in it, and the beginning of the day is called boker [which also means “examining”] because then a man can distinguish between various forms. This coincides with the explanation of Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra.By way of the simple explanation of Scripture, it could not have said, [And there was evening and there was morning] “the first day,”93Instead, it says one day. See Rashi who says that according to the regular mode of expression it should have really said “the first day.” He explains, however, the expression “one day” on the basis of the Midrash: It is “because the Holy One, blessed be He, was then the Only One (the Sole Being) in His universe, since the angels were not created until the second day.” One day thus means “the day of the One Being.” It is this interpretation of Rashi that Ramban alludes to when he comments that according to the simple meaning of Scripture it could not have said, “the first day.” because the second had not yet been made; “the first” precedes a “second” in number or degree but both exist, whereas “one” does not connote the existence of a second.Some scholars explain94Ibn Ezra, Verse 5, and Rambam, Moreh Nebuchim, II, 30. that one day is a reference to the rotation of the sphere upon the face of the whole earth in twenty-four hours, as every moment thereof is morning in some different place and night in the opposite place.95One day thus means that the entire day consists of evening and morning occurring simultaneously in different places. If so, the verse alludes to that which will take place in the firmament after the luminaries will be placed in the firmament of the heavens. (6) LET THERE BE A FIRMAMENT. G-d now said that the substance which had come into being first — that which He created from nought — should be a firmament, stretched as a tent in the midst of the waters, separating between waters and waters. It is possible that this is what the Rabbis intended by their saying,96Bereshith Rabbah 4:1. “Rav said, ‘The heavens were in a fluid form on the first day, and on the second day they solidified.’ Rav thus said, ‘Let there be a firmament means let the firmament become strong.’ Rabbi Yehudah the son of Rabbi Shimon said, ‘Let the firmament become like a plate, just as you say in the verse, And they did beat — [vayerak’u contains the same root as raki’a, firmament] — the gold into thin plates.’”97Exodus 39:3.,IN THE MIDST OF THE WATERS. This means in the center of the waters, between the higher waters and the lower waters. For there is the same distance between the firmament and the waters upon the earth as between the higher waters and the firmament. Thus you may infer that the upper waters are suspended in space by the command of G-d. Thus it is explained in Bereshith Rabbah984:2. and in Rashi’s commentary. This is part of the process of creation [which those who know it are obliged to conceal]; so do not expect me to write anything about it, as the subject is one of the mysteries of the Torah, and the verses in their plain meaning do not require such an interpretation since Scripture itself did not go into it at length, and to give the interpretation is forbidden even to those who know it, and so much the more to us. (7) AND G-D MADE THE FIRMAMENT. The word asi’yah (doing) always means adjusting something to its required proportion.,AND IT WAS SO. On the first day, And there was light is written after And G-d said, ‘Let there be light,’ in order to explain that after the command of G-d, it [the light] came forth into actuality and was as He decreed it to be. But here, after the command, Let there be a firmament, it is written, And G-d made the firmament, and divided, etc.; why then has Scripture added here, And it was so? It is to tell us that it was to be ever so, for all times.But Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra explained that the expression and it was so is attached to the verse which follows, meaning when it was so, G-d called the firmament Heaven. That is not correct.In Bereshith Rabbah994:7. the Rabbis have said: “And G-d made the firmament. This is one of the verses which Ben Zoma100A colleague of Rabbi Akiba. He was one of the four men of his time who were deeply engaged in the interpretation of the mystical doctrine of creation. See Chagiga 14b. found difficult:101Literally: “caused the world to shake.” And G-d made, etc. But was not [the world created] by command, as it is written, By word of the Eternal were the heavens made?”102Psalms 33:6. Now Ben Zoma’s difficulty was not only on account of the word vaya’as (And He made), since on the fourth,103Verse 16. fifth,104Verse 21. On the fifth day the word vaya’as is not found; only vayibra (and He created). and sixth day,105Verse 25. vaya’as is also written. Rather, his difficulty was, as I have said, that on the other days, immediately after G-d’s command, it is written, And it was so, indicating that it came into being immediately after the command, but here on the second day, after it says, And G-d said — vaya’as (And He made) is written! This was his question. Perhaps Ben Zoma had some secret interpretation which he did not want to reveal. This is the explanation of the cause of his difficulty. (8) AND G-D CALLED THE FIRMAMENT HEAVEN. On the second day He gave them this name when He clothed them with the form of the firmament for on the first day the heavens were still in the process of creation, but the name was not attached to them until they took on this form.The meaning of this name [shamayim — heavens] is as if it had the sign of a segol under the letter shin [the prefix shin thus voweled means “that” or “for”] just as in Shalamah (For why) should I be as one that veileth herself?106Song of Songs 1:7. The letter shin there stands for asher - asher lamah (for why). Similarly in Ibn Ezra, ibid. Likewise here, the word shamayim is as if it said asher mayim (that waters), as is explained further in the text. It is thus as if He said that they [the heavens] are waters which have congealed and stretched like a tent in the midst of the upper and lower waters. By this name shamayim He has made known the secret of their creation.In the Gemara Tractate Chagigah,10712a. the Rabbis have said, “What is the meaning of the word shamayim? It means shem mayim.”108“It is a name for water.” So clearly explained further on by Ramban. If so, there is one mem missing here in the word shamayim on account of the adjoining of two similar letters, just as in the word yeruba’al [which stands for yareb bo ba’al — let Baal contend against him].109Judges 6:32. The word shamayim is thus as if it said shem mayim, meaning that “heaven” is the name given the waters when they took on a new form. This is the plain meaning of the verses in accordance with the way of Rashi’s writing,110“The word shamayim [may be regarded as made up of either of these words]: sa mayim (carries water), etc.” Rashi. and it conforms with the opinion of Rav111Mentioned above: that the heavens were in a fluid form on the first day, and on the second day they solidified. which we have mentioned. Thus the names “heaven” and “earth” mentioned in the first verse point to the names by which they would be called in the future, as it would be impossible to make them known in any other manner. It is, however, more correct in accordance with the meaning of the verses that we say that the heavens mentioned in the first verse are the upper heavens, which are not part of the lower spheres but are above the merkavah (the Divine Chariot), just as it is stated, And over the heads of the living creatures there was the likeness of a firmament, like the color of the transparent ice, stretched forth over their heads above.112Ezekiel 1:22. It is on account of these higher heavens that the Holy One, blessed be He, is called He Who rideth upon the heavens.113Deuteronomy 33:26. Scripture, however, did not relate anything concerning their creation, just as it did not mention the creation of the angels, the chayoth of the merkavah, and all Separate Intelligences which are incorporeal. Concerning the heavens, it mentioned only in a general way that they were created, meaning that they came forth from nought. On the second day He said that there should be a firmament in the midst of the waters, meaning that from the waters, the creation of which had already been mentioned, there should come forth an extended substance separating them [into two distinct waters]. These spherical bodies He also called “heavens” by the name of the first upper heavens. This is why they are called in this chapter “the firmament of the heaven” [rather than “heavens”] — And G-d set them in the firmament of the heaven114Verse 17. — in order to explain that they are not the heavens mentioned by that name in the first verse but merely the firmaments called “heavens.”This likewise is the opinion of our Rabbis mentioned in Bereshith Rabbah,1154:1. who state, “All Rabbis say it in the name of Rabbi Chananyah the son of Rabbi Pinchas, and Rabbi Yaakov the son of Rabbi Avin says it in the name of Rabbi Shmuel the son of Rabbi Nachman: Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters — the middle drop of water congealed, and the lower heavens and the highest heaven of heavens were formed.” This saying of the Rabbis refers to the spherical bodies in which there are the lower heavens and the upper ones, called “the heavens of heavens,” as it is written: Praise ye Him, sun and moon; praise Him, all ye stars of light. Praise Him, ye heavens of heavens, and ye waters that are above the heavens.116Psalms 148:3-4. The heavens mentioned here in the first verse, in which is the Throne of the Holy One, Blessed be He, as it is written, The heaven is My throne,117Isaiah 66:1. are the ones mentioned in the beginning of that Psalm: Praise ye the Eternal from the heavens; praise Him in the heights. Praise ye Him, all His angels.118Psalms 148:1-2.This interpretation is correct as far as the simple meaning of the verses is concerned. But there is yet a sublime and hidden secret in the name “the heaven” and in the name “the throne” for there is a heaven to the heavens, and a throne to the throne. Based on this, the Sages use the expressions, “In order that a man may first take upon himself the yoke of the kingdom of Heaven,”119Berachoth 13a. and “the fear of Heaven.”120Ibid., 7a. Scripture likewise says, That the heavens do rule.121Daniel 4:23. The Sages also have a remarkable Midrash on the verse, And Thou hear in heaven.122I Kings 8:32. The Midrash referred to is in Sefer Habahir, 100, and found in Zohar 2, p. 271. See my Hebrew commentary, p. 19, note 58. The worthy one will see all this alluded to in the first verse.Thus the verses have explained that the first created things were from nought, and the rest were derived from the first created substance.See no objection to this explanation from the saying of Rabbi Eliezer the Great,123Found in Pirke d’Rabbi Eliezer, 3. See also Moreh Nebuchim II, 26, where Rambam discusses this saying of Rabbi Eliezer and concludes that he is not able to explain it sufficiently. Ramban, however, explains it further on in the text in a way which makes it consistent with the theory of creation from absolute nought. who states, “Whence were the heavens created? From the light of the garment of the Holy One, blessed be He.” [This would apparently indicate that the heavens were not created from nought but from another preceding substance.] This opinion is also found in Bereshith Rabbah.12412:1. Since the Sages wanted to elevate the first substance to the utmost and make it ethereal, they did not find it feasible that the heavens, which are moving corporeal bodies possessing matter and form, were created from nought. Instead, they said “the light of the garment” was created first, and from it came forth the real substance of the heavens. And to the earth He gave another substance,125This is based on the concluding statement of Rabbi Eliezer the Great: “Whence was the earth created? From the snow under the Throne of Glory.” (See Note 123.) not as minute as the first [substance from which the heavens were formed], and that is “the snow under the Throne of Glory,” for the Throne of Glory was first created, and from it came forth “the snow” under it, and from it [the “snow”] was formed the substance of the earth, which was third126The Throne of Glory, the snow, the earth. In the case of the heavens, however, creation was completed in the second stage: ‘the light of the garment’ and then the heavens. This accords with the theory explained above (see Note 35) that the substance of the heavens is unlike that of the earth. in the order of creation. (9) LET THE WATERS UNDER THE HEAVEN BE GATHERED TOGETHER. The deep, which is water and sand, was like turbid waters, and He decreed concerning the waters that they be gathered together in one place, surrounded on all sides, and He further decreed concerning the sands that they rise up until they be seen above the waters and that they become dry, so that there be a stretch of dry land suitable for settlement thereon. And so it is written: To Him that spread forth the earth above the waters.127Psalms 136:6. Or perhaps G-d’s decree was that the earth be spherical, partly visible and mostly submerged in the waters, as the Greeks imagine in their proofs, apparent or real. Thus there were two decrees, that is, two matters done by the Will of G-d that are contrary to their natural inclination. For in view of the heaviness of earth [which would cause it to sink] and the lightness of the waters [which would cause them to rise], it would have been natural that the pillar of the earth be in the center and that the waters should cover it, thus surrounding it from all sides.128But instead He decreed that the waters which filled the whole world should go down as would be natural for the earth, and that the earth should come up as would be natural for the water. Therefore, He said, Let the waters under the heaven be gathered together, that is to a lower place, and then He said, And let the dry land appear. He gave them names as they assumed these forms, for at the beginning their collective name was “the deep.” (10) AND G-D CALLED THE DRY LAND EARTH. The verse states that the proper name for it would be yabashah (dry land) for as the waters are separated from the sand it becomes dry. However, He called it eretz (earth) as the name which included the four elements created on the first day. The reason for this is that they were all created for the sake of the earth in order that there be a habitation for man, since among the lower creatures no one but man recognizes his Creator.129This is a major principle in Ramban’s thought, that the purpose of all existence is that man acknowledge his Creator. “We have no other reason for the Creation.” (See end of Seder Bo in the Book of Exodus).And the gathering together of the waters He called ‘yamim’ (seas). It is as if [the word yamim, (seas) combines the two words] yam and mayim (a sea of waters), for the bottom of the ocean is called yam, as it is written, As the waters cover the sea,130Isaiah 11:9. and likewise, And he took down the sea from off the brazen oxen.131II Kings 16:17. It is called “sea” because there was a large gathering of water in it.,AND G-D SAW THAT IT WAS GOOD. This means that their continued existence was by His Will, and the purport is that when He clothed them with this form He desired them to be so and their existence was thus established as I have explained.132In Verse 4. This conforms to what our Rabbis have said:133Bereshith Rabbah 4:8. “Why is it not stated in reference to the work of the second day that it was good? Because the work associated with the waters was not completed until the third day. Therefore on the third day, [the words ki tov — that it was good] are repeated, once in reference to the completion of the work associated with the waters, and once in reference to [the completion of the other work of] that day.” (11) AND G-D SAID: ‘LET THE EARTH PUT FORTH GRASS.’ He decreed that there be among the products of the earth a force which grows and bears seed so that the species should exist forever. It is possible that the name “earth” mentioned in the first verse already contains a hint that a force which causes things to grow should spring up from the earth, and it was from this force that the foundations of all vegetations according to their kinds emanated. From them sprang the grass and trees in the garden of Eden, and from them came those in the world. This is what the Rabbis have said:134The source is not definite. See Pirke d’Rabbi Eliezer, Chapter 3. “On the third day He created three creations: trees, grass, and the garden of Eden.” They have also said:135Bereshith Rabbah 10:7. “There is not a single blade of grass below [that does not have] a constellation in heaven that smites it and says to it, ‘Grow.’ It is this which Scripture says, Knowest thou the ordinances of the heavens? Canst thou establish ‘mishtaro’ (the dominion thereof) in the earth?136Job 38:33. — [mishtaro being derived from the root] shoter (executive officer).”And He said that all this vegetation should be after its kind. This is the basis of the prohibition of sowing mixed kinds of seeds,137Leviticus 19:19. since he who sows them works contrary to the power of the work of creation. I will yet explain this137Leviticus 19:19. with the help of G-d.Now Rabbeinu Shlomo [Rashi] wrote: “Deshe essev (grass, herb). Deshe does not mean the same as esev and esev does not mean the same as deshe, for by deshe is meant that which forms the covering of the ground when it is filled with vegetation, and it is not linguistically correct to say ‘this or that deshe.’ Each by itself is called this or that esev.”This interpretation of Rashi is not correct. For if it were so, the word deshe138Chullin 60a. could have no plural, and yet we find the Sages saying, “If a person grafted together two kinds of deshaim, what should the law be?”138Chullin 60a. And the Rabbi himself139Rashi. The title Harav (the Rabbi, the Master) without specification of the name is used by Ramban only with reference to Rashi or Rambam. It is the highest mark of respect. Precedent for it is found in the Talmud where just the title Rabbi meant Rabbi Yehudah Hanasi, redactor of the Mishnah, and the title Rav was a reference to Abba Arucha, founder of the Babylonian Academy of Sura. mentions deshaim.140That is, when Rashi writes, “For the species of deshaim are different; each by itself called this or that esev.” Rather, deshe is the young growing plant, and esev is the mature product which produces seeds. This is why Scripture says, ‘tadshei ha’aretz’ (let the earth put forth) ‘deshe’ (young plants), and it would not be correct usage to say ta’asiv [for the word esev applies to mature products which produce seeds]. And every young thing that grows from the earth is called deshe, even trees. Therefore tadshei ha’aretz in the verse extends also to the expression etz pri (the fruit-tree). [This interpretation is necessary] since He did not say, “Let the earth put forth deshe esev and let it bring forth the fruit-tree.” The word deshe thus has the same meaning as tz’michah (growing). Similarly we find: For the pasture of the wilderness ‘dash’u’ (do spring), for the tree beareth its fruit.141Joel 2:22.I wonder why Scripture did not mention the creation of fruitless trees, and how is it that He commanded only concerning fruit-trees? Perhaps this is what induced our Rabbis to say,142Bereshith Rabbah 5:9. “Even the presently barren trees at first bore fruit.” If so, we must say that since the imprecation [which was visited upon Adam for his sin] — Cursed be the ground for thy sake143Genesis 3:17. — barren trees came into existence. But it is possible that the explanation of the verse before us is as follows: “Let the earth bring forth growing things, and herbs which yield seed and trees which bear fruit.” Thus He decreed at first the creation of barren herbs and barren trees in general, and then He specified herbs which yield seed and trees which bear fruit. From what He said later on — bearing fruit… wherein is the seed thereof — we may derive that all trees were to grow from their seed although it is the custom with some trees to be propagated by planting a branch. (12) AND G-D SAW THAT IT WAS GOOD. This affirms the existence of the various kinds forever.There was no special day assigned for this command for vegetation alone, since it is not a unique work. The earth, whether it brings forth anything or is salt land, is one. (14) LET THERE BE LIGHTS. Now the light was created on the first day, illuminating the elements, but when on the second day the firmament was made, it intercepted the light and prevented it from illuminating the lower elements. Thus, when the earth was created on the third day there was darkness on it and not light. And now on the fourth day the Holy One, blessed be He, desired that there be in the firmament luminaries, the light of which would reach the earth. This is the meaning of the words, in the firmament of the heaven to give light upon the earth,144Verse 17. for there already was light above the firmament which did not illuminate the earth.The meaning of the words, Let there be lights, is as follows: He decreed on the first day that from the substance of the heavens there should come forth a light for the period of the day, and now He decreed that it become corporeal and that a luminous body come forth from it which would give light during the day with a great illumination, and that another body of lesser light [should come into existence] to illumine at night, and He suspended both in the firmament of the heavens in order that they illumine below as well.It is possible that just as He endowed the earth with the power of growth in certain places thereof, so He placed in the firmament certain areas that are prepared and ready to receive the light, and these bodies which receive the light reflect it, just as window-panes and onyx stones. This is why He called them me’oroth and not orim. [Orim would imply that they have their own light; me’oroth on the other hand implies that they reflect the light which they receive], even though they are called orim, in the Psalm.145Psalms 136:7. To Him that made great ‘orim’ (lights).,TO DIVIDE THE DAY FROM THE NIGHT. Rashi wrote: “This took place after the primeval light was concealed for the righteous, but during the six146In our text of Rashi: “seven.” See my note to Berliner’s edition of Rashi (p. 436) that both texts can be explained as correct. days of creation the [primeval] light and darkness functioned, one by day and one by night.”147In our text of Rashi: “functioned together both by day and by night.” However, during the seven days of creation it was the primeval light that functioned, its concealment taking place on the eve following the Sabbath (so clearly explained in Maharal’s commentary on Rashi — Gur Aryeh).Now I do not see that this is the opinion of our Rabbis who mention concealment in connection with the primeval light. In their opinion, rather, the primeval light functioned for three days, and on the fourth an emanation took place from which was formed these two luminaries, just as the Rabbis have said,148Bereshith Rabbah 17:7. “The sphere of the sun is an offshoot of the upper light.” For since this world was not deserving of being served by this primeval light without an intermediary, He concealed it for the righteous in the World to Come, and He made use of this offshoot of the upper light from the fourth day on. Thus the Rabbis said in Bereshith Rabbah:1493:6. “It was taught: The light which was created during the six days of creation could not give light at daytime because it would then dim the sphere of the sun; at night it could not give light, since it was created to light only at daytime. So where is it? It was concealed. And where is it? It is prepared for the righteous in the hereafter, as it is said, And the light of the moon shall be as the light of the sun, and as the light of the seven days.150Isaiah 30:26. ‘Seven?’ I wonder! Were they not three?151For since the present light was created on the fourth day, the primeval light functioned only for the first three days during Creation. It is like a man who says thus: ‘I am keeping this for the seven days of my wedding feast.’” That is to say, it is common parlance that one say: “I am keeping and guarding this meat for the seven days of my wedding festivity.” It is not that this would suffice him for all seven days, only that he will use it during that time. In the same way the Rabbis explained the expression seven days, meaning as the light which functioned during some of those days.There in Bereshith Rabbah the Rabbis also said:1523:7. “And He separated the light.153Verse 4. Rabbi Yehudah the son of Rabbi Simon said, ‘He separated it for Himself.’154Just as the verse says, And the light dwelleth with Him. (Daniel 2:22). And the Rabbis say, ‘He separated it for the righteous in the hereafter.’” Now if you could know the intent of the Rabbis in their saying in the Blessing of the Moon,155Sanhedrin 42a. “A crown of glory to those borne by Him from the birth,” you would know the secret of the primeval light, the conserving thereof, and the matter of separation mentioned [in the words of Rabbi Yehudah the son of Rabbi Simon] — i.e., “He separated it for Himself” — as well as the secret of “the two kings making use of one crown,”156Chullin 60 b, and mentioned in Rashi here, Verse 16: “The sun and the moon were created of equal size. When the moon complained, ‘It is impossible for two kings to make use of one crown,’ G-d said to it, ‘Go and diminish thyself.’” as will indeed be the case at the end when the light of the moon shall be as the light of the sun after the light of the sun shall be sevenfold.150Isaiah 30:26.,AND THEY SHALL BE FOR SIGNS. These are the changes which they will bring forth, making signs and wonders in the heavens and in the earth, blood, and fire, and pillars of smoke.157Joel 3:3. This is similar in meaning to the expression, And be not dismayed at the signs of heaven.158Jeremiah 10:2.,AND FOR SEASONS. This means seedtime and harvest, and cold and heat, and summer and winter.159Genesis 8:22.,AND FOR DAYS. This means the length of day and the length of night.,AND YEARS. The luminaries are to complete their orbit and then traverse again the same course they followed, thus making the solar year consist of 365 days and the lunar year consist of [lunar cycles, each approximately] 30 days. (15) AND THEY SHALL BE FOR LIGHTS IN THE FIRMAMENT OF THE HEAVEN TO GIVE LIGHT UPON THE EARTH. He added here that their light should reach the earth since it is possible for the light to be seen in the heavens and perform all mentioned functions without lighting upon the earth. Hence He said that it be for lights in the firmament of the heaven, directed toward the earth and shining upon it. (16) AND G-D MADE. 17. AND G-D SET THEM. This teaches us that these lights were not made from the body of the firmament, rather, they were bodies set into it. (18) AND TO RULE OVER THE DAY AND OVER THE NIGHT. The matter of rulership is a different matter from the function of light which He mentioned, since it includes that which He stated at first, And they shall be for signs, and seasons. Their rulership over the earth comprises the changes which they cause in it and the power of bringing about the existence and deterioration of all things in the lower world since the sun, by its rule during the day, causes the sprouting, the propagation and the growth of all the warm and dry things, while the moon by its rule increases the springs and the oceans, and all liquid and cold things. Therefore He said in a general way, And to rule over the day and over the night, because theirs is the dominion over things in the lower world.It is possible that the rulership given to them contains also a power of emanation for they are the leaders of things in the lower world, and with their power, every ruling power in nature holds sway. Thus the constellation which comes up by day rules during it, even as it is written, The sun and the moon and the stars… which the Eternal thy G-d hath allotted unto all the peoples.160Deuteronomy 4:19. And this is what Scripture means when it says, He counteth the number of the stars; He giveth them all their names,161Psalms 147:4. likewise, He calleth them all by name.162Isaiah 40:26. For the calling of names signifies the differentiation in their respective powers, giving to this one the power of justice and righteousness, and to that one the power of blood and the sword, and similarly all other powers, as is known in astrology. And all is done by the power of the Most High and in accordance with His Will. Therefore it says, Great is our Lord, and mighty in power,163Psalms 147:5. for He is greatest of all and mightiest in power over them. And similarly it says, He calleth them all by name by the greatness of His might and the strength of His power.162Isaiah 40:26. In accord with the secret I have hinted to you, the matter of rulership is completely true.,AND TO DIVIDE THE LIGHT FROM THE DARKNESS. Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra said: “By the coming forth of the sun at daytime and the light of the moon at night, they shall divide the light from the darkness.”164Ibn Ezra’s opinion is that the word ul’havdil (and to divide) refers to both the sun and moon, that each in coming forth separates between light and darkness. (Tur.) In my opinion, the light mentioned here refers to the day, and the darkness is the night for such are their names, as it says, And G-d called the light Day, and the darkness He called Night.165Verse 5. Thus according to Ramban, the meaning of the verse is: “and to divide the day from the night,” meaning, that light is to serve at daytime and darkness at night. (Tur.)Now in connection with all the works of creation, Scripture mentions the Divine command and then tells of the deed. And here too He commanded, And they shall be for lights,166Verse 15. and then it relates, And G-d set them.167Verse 17. He further said, And to rule over the day and over the night,168Verse 18. meaning that one is to rule by day and the other by night, the rulership being that which He commanded when He said, And they shall be for signs, and for seasons.169Verse 14. And now He related that the rulership of the two is not alike but instead consists of dividing the darkness from the light. The greater luminary will rule by day and light will be everywhere, even where the sun does not reach, and the smaller luminary will rule by night, and there will be darkness except that the moon will lighten its darkness. This then is the command He gave in order to divide the day from the night,169Verse 14. as it says, And G-d divided the light from the darkness.153Verse 4. (20) LET THE WATERS SWARM WITH ‘SHERETZ’ (SWARMS) OF LIVING CREATURES. Rashi wrote: “Every living creature that does not rise much above the ground is called sheretz, [e.g., species] of winged creatures such as flies; of abominable creatures such as ants and worms; of larger creatures such as the mole and the mouse and others of the same kind, and all fishes.”But what will the Rabbi170Rashi. See Note 139. say of the verse, And you, be ye fruitful, and multiply; ‘shirtzu’ (swarm) in the earth and multiply therein,171Genesis 9:7. which was said to Noah and his sons? Likewise, the verse stating, which ‘hamayim’ (the waters) swarmed,172In Verse 21. should, according to this opinion of Rashi, read: “Which swarmed bamayim (in the waters).”173Since, according to Rashi, they swarm in the waters. Again there are many winged creatures that do not rise in height above the ground even as much as the mole and mouse, and the bat has very small legs, so why should it not be called sheretz ha’oph (a winged swarming thing)?Onkelos’ opinion is that the term shritzah (swarming) has an implication of movement. Thus he says of both sheretz and remes: richasha d’rachish (moving things that move).174This expression of Onkelos is found in Leviticus 11:44, where the Hebrew reads, hasheretz haromes, which Onkelos translated, richasha d’rachish. Thus it is obvious that Onkelos understood both words (sheretz and remes) as conveying a sense of movement. He has explained it correctly. Shratzim are so called because of their constant movement. It is possible that it is a composite word: sheretz, shehu ratz (that which runs). Remes is so called because it creeps upon the earth and is never quiet or at rest.Know that every winged creature that has four legs is called sheretz ha’oph (a winged creeping175“Creeping,” according to Rashi, would be “swarming.” thing) because it leans on its legs and moves like shratzim, and a winged creature which is not so is called oph kanaph (winged fowl) because its main method of movement is flying. The meaning of the verse, ‘Veshartzu’ in the earth and be fruitful, and multiply upon the earth176Genesis 8:17. is thus: that they may walk177Translations which read “that ‘they may swarm’ in the earth” are thus according to Rashi’s interpretation. Ramban, as here explained, understands the sense of the verse to be: “‘that they may move about’ the earth.” upon the entire earth, and be fruitful and multiply upon it. ‘Shirtzu’ in the earth and multiply therein171Genesis 9:7. means “move about the entire earth and multiply thereon.” This is the reason for the repetition of the word ur’vu (and ye multiply) in the verse.178Quoted above: And you be ye fruitful and multiply, ‘shirtzu’ in the earth and multiply therein [9:7]. Thus the first expression and multiply establishes the commandment of procreation; the second refers to the duty of making the whole earth habitable for people. This being so, we will explain the expression, which the waters ‘shartzu,’172In Verse 21. as meaning “which the waters have moved and brought forth.” Similarly, the expression, ‘Vesharatz’ the river with frogs179Exodus 7:28. [means that the river moved and brought forth frogs]. Also, And the children of Israel were fruitful ‘vayishr’tzu,’180Ibid., 1:7. means that they were fruitful and they multiplied and moved about because of their multitude until the land was filled with them.Onkelos, however, interpreted the verse, ‘Shirtzu’ in the earth,171Genesis 9:7. as having reference to propagation. He thus translated, “Propagate in the land,” since he understood the word shirtzu — a verb — as being borrowed from the noun shratzim (reptiles). [The verse, according to Onkelos, thus states:] “And you, be ye fruitful and multiply, as the prolific creatures in the earth, and multiply therein.” Similarly, And the children of Israel were fruitful ‘vayishr’tzu’180Ibid., 1:7. means they brought forth progeny abundantly as the prolific creatures.,AND LET FOWL FLY ABOVE THE EARTH. On this fifth day the command of creation was given to the waters, and on the sixth day it was given to the earth. If so, the expression, and let fowl fly above the earth, must be interpreted as being connected with [the beginning of the verse which has the following meaning]: “Let the waters swarm with swarms of living creatures and with fowl that will fly.” And the verse stating, And the Eternal G-d formed out of the ground every beast of the field, and every fowl of the air,181Genesis 2:19. [which seems to indicate that the fowl were created from the ground, not from the water, must be understood] as if it said: “And the Eternal G-d formed out of the earth every beast of the field, and He also formed every fowl of the air out of the water.” There are many verses like this. So also is the opinion of Rabbi Eliezer the Great in his Chapters,182Beginning of Chapter 9. where he says: “On the fifth day he caused all winged fowl to swarm from the waters.” However, in the Gemara183Chullin 27b. the Sages differ on this point. Some, agreeing with the previously mentioned interpretation, say that all winged fowl were created from the waters, and some say that they were created from both — in their words, “they were created from the swamps.” If so, since the fowl sprang from the waters, and the swamps are at the bottom of the ocean, this is why the command concerning their creation took place on the fifth day.Similarly He said, Let the waters swarm with swarms of living creatures, since both the body and soul of fish come from the waters by word of G-d Who brought upon them a spirit from the elements, unlike man, in whom He separated the body from his soul, as it is said, And the Eternal G-d formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life.184Genesis 2:7. On the third day of creation when the plants came into being, He mentioned nothing at all concerning a soul because the power of growth which resides in plants is not a “soul;” only in moving beings is it a “soul.” And in the opinion of the Greeks, who say that just as in moving beings the power of growth is only through the soul, so also in the case of plants is the power of growth through a soul. The difference between them will be that the one [the moving being] is a nefesh chayah (a living soul),185In Verse 20: Let the waters swarm with swarms of ‘nefesh chayah’ (a living soul). Same in Verse 24, in the creation of beasts, etc. that is, a soul in which there is life, for there is a soul which has no life and that is the soul of plants. Our Rabbis have mentioned “desire” in connection with date trees.186Bereshith Rabbah 44:1. Perhaps this is a force in growth, but it cannot be called “a soul.” (21) AND G-D CREATED THE GREAT SEA-MONSTERS. Because of the great size of these creatures, some consisting of many Persian miles — the Greeks in their books even relate that they knew some of them to be 500 Persian miles long, and our Rabbi likewise spoke of them in magnifying terms187Baba Bathra 73b. — on account of that, Scripture explicitly ascribes their creation to G-d for He brought them forth from nought from the beginning, as I have explained the expression b’riyah (creation). Similarly, Scripture does so in the case of man188Verse 27: And G-d created man in His own image. on account of his exaltedness, thus informing us that man, with his mind and reason, also came forth from nought.I wonder why it does not say “and it was so” on this day? Perhaps it would not have been possible to mention And He created after saying, “and it was so,” since it refers to the preceding.189If Verse 20 (Let the waters swarm with swarms of living creatures, etc.) would have concluded with the expression and it was so, it would have implied the creation of the sea-monster, since they also swarm in the waters. How then could it say in the following verse, And G-d created the sea-monster, as if it were another act of creation? To say, and it was so after vayibra (And He created) is also not possible for this would be redundant. Hence on the fifth day, the expression and it was so does not appear in Scripture.Our Rabbis have said190Baba Bathra 74b. that the great sea-monsters are the Leviathan and its mate which He created male and female. He then slew the female and preserved it in salt for the benefit of the righteous in the hereafter. It is possible that on account of this it would not have been appropriate to say concerning their creation, “and it was so,” since they did not continue to exist [in the form in which they were created]. (22) AND G-D BLESSED THEM SAYING. He decreed the blessing on them and said of them that they should be fruitful and multiply, meaning that they should bring forth abundantly, that one creature should bring forth many like itself. The purport of the blessing is procreation, even as it says, And I will bless her, and she shall be a mother of nations.191Genesis 17:16. In connection with plants also, the term “blessing” applies: Then I will command My blessing upon you in the sixth year.192Leviticus 25:21. However, it does not say so on the third day [when the plants and trees were created] because all created living beings were only a single pair, male and female, according to their kind, and therefore they were in need of a blessing to bring forth abundantly; but in the case of plants, they sprang up over the face of the entire earth in great abundance, just as they exist today. Nor did He mention a blessing on the sixth day for cattle and beasts because in the decree of abundancy which He decreed for the moving souls in the waters there were included the moving souls on the earth, as all living souls that do not speak are in the same class of creation. And our Rabbis have said193Bereshith Rabbah 11:2, and quoted here in Rashi. that they [the fish and fowl] were in need of a blessing because people hunt them and eat them.194“Beasts also were in need of a blessing [for the same reason, namely, that people decrease their numbers by hunting them and eating them], but on account of the serpent that was to be cursed in the future, G-d did not bless them, in order that it might not be included in the blessing. “ Rashi.,AND FILL THE WATERS IN THE SEA. He blessed them that in their abundancy they would fill the seas, the streams and the pools. Or it may be that their “filling” is to be in the seas only for in the streams they are few.,AND LET FOWL MULTIPLY IN THE EARTH. Although the fowl were created out of the waters, their blessing — that they be fruitful and multiply — was to be on the earth for there is no fowl that lays its eggs in the waters and has them grow there. Even those fowl which abide always in the waters and derive their food from them lay their eggs on the earth, and there they are born. (24) CATTLE. These are the species that eat grass, whether domestic animals or those of the wilderness.,AND BEAST OF THE EARTH. Those which eat flesh are called chayoth (beasts), and they all seek and seize prey.,VAREMES’ (AND CREEPING THING). Rashi wrote: “These are creeping swarms that creep low upon the earth, appearing as though they are dragged along.” Now in this chapter we find: And over every animal ‘haromeseth’ (that creepeth) upon the earth;195Verse 28. Here Rashi’s interpretation could not apply to animal. and it is further written, And all flesh ‘haromes’ (that moved) upon the earth perished, both fowl and cattle, and beasts, and every swarming thing that swarmeth upon the earth;196Genesis 7:21. also, Wherein all the beasts of the forest ‘tirmos’ (do creep forth).197Psalms 104:20. But the meaning of r’misah is as if it were written with the letter samech, as in The foot tirm’senah (shall tread it down),198Isaiah 26:6. and other related expressions. He thus says of beasts and cattle, ‘romes’ (that tread) on the earth,199Verse 26. and of creeping things that drag along, ‘remes’ (that creep) upon the ground,200Verse 25. because they tread on the ground with their entire body. (26) AND G-D SAID: ‘LET US MAKE MAN.’ There was a special command dedicated to the making of man because of his great superiority since his nature is unlike that of beasts and cattle which were created with the preceding command.The correct explanation of na’aseh (let us make) [which is in the plural form when it should have been in the singular] is as follows: It has been shown to you that G-d created something from nothing only on the first day, and afterwards He formed and made things from those created elements.201Fire, wind, water, and earth. Thus when He gave the waters the power of bringing forth a living soul,202Verse 20. the command concerning them was Let the waters swarm.202Verse 20. The command concerning cattle was Let the earth bring forth.203Verse 24. But in the case of man He said, Let us make, that is, I and the aforementioned earth, let us make man, the earth to bring forth the body from its elements as it did with cattle and beasts, as it is written, And the Eternal G-d formed man of the dust of the ground,204Genesis 2:7. and He, blessed be He, to give the spirit from His mouth, the Supreme One, as it is written, And He breathed into his nostrils the breath of life.204Genesis 2:7. And He said, In our image, and after our likeness, as man will then be similar to both. In the capacity of his body, he will be similar to the earth from which he was taken, and in spirit he will be similar to the higher beings, because it [the spirit] is not a body and will not die. In the second verse, He says, In the image of G-d He created him,205Verse 27. in order to relate the distinction by which man is distinguished from the rest of created beings. The explanation of this verse I have found ascribed to Rabbi Joseph the Kimchite,206The father of Rabbi David Kimchi (R’dak, the famous grammarian and commentator of the Bible). The explanation is found in R’dak’s commentary to the Torah here as well as in his Sefer Hamichlal. In his works on Hebrew grammar and Bible, R’dak often mentions the interpretation of his father. Moses Kimchi, a second son to Joseph, also continued the tradition of the family. and is the most acceptable of all interpretations that have been advanced concerning it.The meaning of tzelem is as the word to’ar (appearance), as in ‘Vetzelem’ (And the appearance) of his face was changed;207Daniel 3:19. similarly, Surely ‘b’tzelem’ (as a mere appearance) man walketh;208Psalms 39:7. When Thou arousest Thyself ‘tzalmam’ (their appearance) Thou wilt despise,209Ibid., 73:20. that is, the appearance of their countenance. And the meaning of the word d’muth is similarity in form and deed, as things that are akin in a certain matter are called similar to each other. Thus man is similar both to the lower and higher beings in appearance and honor, as it is written, And Thou hast crowned him with glory and honor,210Ibid., 8:6. meaning that the goal before him is wisdom, knowledge, and skill of deed.211Ecclesiastes 2:21;4:4. In real likeness his body thus compares to the earth while his soul is similar to the higher beings.,AND LET THEM HAVE DOMINION OVER THE FISH OF THE SEA. On account of his [man’s] being male and female, he said, And let ‘them’ have dominion over the fish of the sea, in the plural.In Bereshith Rabbah, the Rabbis have said:2127:7. “Let the earth bring forth a living soul after its kind.203Verse 24. Said Rabbi Elazar: ‘A living soul — this has reference to the spirit of the first man.’” Now it is impossible that Rabbi Elazar should say that the expression, Let the earth bring forth, be explained as having reference to the soul of the first man at all.213Since man did not at all derive his higher soul from the earth at all. Instead, his intent is to say what I have mentioned, that the formation of man as regarding his spirit, namely, the soul which is in the blood, that was done from the earth, just as in the command of formation of the beasts and cattle. For the souls of all moving things were made at one time, and afterwards He created bodies for them. First He made the bodies of the cattle and the beasts, and then the body of man into whom He imparted this soul [which resides in the blood, and is akin to that of the cattle and beasts], and afterwards, He breathed into him a higher soul. For it is concerning this separate soul that a special command was devoted by G-d Who gave it, as it is written, And He breathed into his nostrils the breath of life.204Genesis 2:7.The way of truth in this verse [as to why Scripture begins with “man” in the singular — let us make ‘man’ — and then uses the plural, let ‘them’ have dominion] will be known to him who understands the following verse [27, where the same change appears. It begins by stating, in the image of G-d He created ‘him,’ and then uses the plural: male and female He created ‘them’.]It is possible that Rabbi Elazar meant to explain the expression Let the earth bring forth as meaning “the earth of eternal life,” that it bring forth a living soul after its kind that will exist forever. Similarly, [we explain that when Scripture] said, male and female He created them,205Verse 27. it is because man’s creation at first was male and female, and His soul was included in both of them. However, in the formation, man was formed first, and then He built the woman from the rib of man, as Scripture tells later. Therefore Scripture mentioned here the term “creation,” and in the chapter below it mentioned “formation.”204Genesis 2:7. The person learned [in the mysteries of the Torah] will understand.The meaning of let them have dominion is that they shall rule vigorously over the fish, the fowl, the cattle, and all creeping things — “the cattle” here includes the beast.And He said, And over all the earth, to indicate that they are to rule over the earth itself, to uproot and to pull down, to dig and to hew out copper and iron. The term r’diyah — [’v’yirdu’ over the fish … and over all the earth] — applies to the rule of the master over his servant. (28) AND G-D BLESSED THEM. This is an actual blessing [unlike Verse 22 where the blessing of the fish and fowl consisted of bestowing upon them the power of procreation]. Therefore, it is written here, And G-d blessed them, and G-d said unto them. But above in Verse 22 it is written, And G-d blessed them, saying, [the word saying indicating] that the blessing is the command of procreation, that He gave them the power of bringing forth offspring, and no other command with which they are to be blessed. [But in the case of man, in addition to the power of being fruitful, he was also blessed that he have dominion over the earth, hence Scripture continues, and G-d said unto them.],AND REPLENISH THE EARTH. This is a blessing that they fill the earth because of their numbers. In my opinion, He blessed them that they fill the whole earth, and that the nations should disperse according to their families and should populate the far ends of the world because of their numbers and not be concentrated in one place, as was the thought of the men of the generation of the dispersion.,AND SUBDUE IT. He gave them power and dominion over the earth to do as they wish with the cattle, the reptiles, and all that crawl in the dust, and to build, and to pluck up that which is planted,214Ecclesiastes 3:2. and from its hills to dig copper, and other similar things. This is included in what He said and over all the earth.199Verse 26.,AND HAVE DOMINION OVER THE FISH OF THE SEA. He said that they should also have dominion over the fish that are concealed from them, And over the fowl of the heaven which are not on the ground, and also over every wild animal. He thus mentioned them in the order of their creation: first the fish and fowl, and afterwards the animals. So likewise Scripture says, Thou hast made him have dominion over the works of Thy hands; Thou hast put all things under his feet: sheep and oxen, all of them, yea, and the beasts of the field, the fowl of the air, and the fish of the sea.215Psalms 8:7-9. In Keseph Mezukak the author notes that this Scriptural quote should be preceded by the expression, “even if Scripture elsewhere does not state them in this order” since in this quotation fowl and fish are after all mentioned last in order. Our Rabbis, however, have made a distinction between kvishah (subduing) and r’diyah (having dominion).216Thus the Rabbis, in Bereshith Rabbah 8:12, say that while the terms kvishah and r’diyah imply power and dominion, r’diyah also suggests yeridah (sinking low). Thus, if man is worthy he dominates (rodeh) over the beasts and cattle; if he is not worthy, he sinks lower (yarud) than they, and the beasts rule over him. (29) BEHOLD, I HAVE GIVEN YOU EVERY HERB YIELDING SEED. He did not permit Adam and his wife to kill any creature and eat its meat, but all alike were to eat herbs. But when the era of “the sons of Noah” came, He permitted them to eat meat, as it is said, Every moving thing that liveth shall be for food for you; as the green herb have I given you all;217Genesis 9:3. even as the green herb that I permitted to the first man, so do I permit you everything. Thus is the language of Rashi. And so did the Rabbi218Rashi. explain it in Tractate Sanhedrin:21959b. “And to every beast of the earth220Verse 30. — to you and to the beasts I have given the herbs and the fruits of the trees, and every green herb for food.”220Verse 30.But if so, then we must explain the expression, every green herb for food,220Verse 30. to mean “and every green herb.”221The intent of Ramban’s remark is as follows: if, as according to Rashi, man and beast were made alike with respect to their permitted food, then Verse 29, which specifies the food for man, and Verse 30, which begins with and to every beast of the earth and concludes with every green herb for food, are to be understood as one command since both man and beast were permitted the same food. In that case, Verse 30 should read: “and every green herb,” that is, in addition to every herb yielding seed… and every tree, in which is the fruit of a tree yielding seed mentioned in Verse 29, they could also eat every green herb. But this is not so. Rather, He gave to man and his wife every herb yielding seed and all fruit of the trees [as mentioned in Verse 29], and to the beasts of the earth and the fowl of the heaven He gave all green herb [as mentioned in Verse 30] but neither the fruit of the tree nor the seeds. The food of all of them was thus not the same. However, meat was not permitted to them until the time of the “sons of Noah,”222After the flood all people of all time were commanded to observe as a minimum the following seven precepts: (a) to establish courts of justice; (b) to abstain from idolatry; (c) incest; (d) murder; (e) robbery; (f) blasphemy; and (g) eating flesh cut from living animals. These are the laws of Noachids, or “sons of Noah.” (See further Ramban 34:13.) At that time permission was given them to eat meat, the reason for which is explained in the text. as is the opinion of our Rabbis. And this is the plain meaning of the verse.The reason for this [prohibition of eating meat] was that creatures possessing a moving soul have a certain superiority as regards their soul, resembling in a way those who possess the rational soul: they have the power of choice affecting their welfare and their food, and they flee from pain and death. And Scripture says: Who knoweth the spirit of man whether it goeth upward, and the spirit of the beast whether it goes downward to the earth?223Ecclesiastes 3:21.But when they sinned, and all flesh had corrupted its way upon the earth,224Genesis 6:12. and it was decreed that they die in the flood, and for the sake of Noah He saved some of them to preserve the species, He gave the sons of Noah permission to slaughter and eat them since their existence was for his sake.225That is, Noah’s sake. The Tur’s version reads “their sake,” a reference to all three sons of Noah who were also righteous. See Ramban further, 2:3, where he discusses the profounder meanings of the elements created on the second day, and he writes that they symbolize Noah and his sons as all having been tzadikim (righteous men). Yet with all this, He did not give them permission regarding the soul thereof, and He prohibited them from eating a limb cut off from a living animal, and in addition He gave us [the children of Israel] the commandment prohibiting the eating of all blood because it is the basis of the soul, as it is written: For the life of all flesh, the blood thereof is all one with the life thereof; therefore I said to the children of Israel: Ye shall eat the blood of no manner of flesh; for the life of all flesh is the blood thereof.226Leviticus 17:14. Thus He has permitted the eating of the body of dumb animals after death, but not the soul itself.This indeed is the reason for the commandment of killing [animals in the prescribed manner before eating their flesh], and for the saying of the Rabbis:227Shabbath 128b. “The duty of relieving the suffering of beasts is a Biblical requirement.” And this is the meaning behind the benediction which we make before killing animals: “[Blessed art Thou, O Eternal our G-d, king of the universe] Who hast sanctified us by His commandments and commanded us concerning the killing [of animals].” I will yet discuss the purport of the commandment prohibiting the eating of blood when I reach thereto,228Leviticus 17:14. if G-d will reward me.The meaning of the expression, every herb yielding seed… and every tree, in which is the fruit of a tree yielding seed; to you it shall be for food, is that they should eat the seeds of herbs, such as the grains of wheat, barley, beans, and the like, and that they should eat all fruits of the tree; but the tree itself was not given to them for food, nor was the herb itself until man was cursed and he was told, And thou shalt eat the herb of the field.229Genesis 3:18. (31) AND, BEHOLD, IT WAS VERY GOOD. This signifies their permanent existence, as I have explained.230Above in Verses 4 and 12. The meaning of the word me’od (very) is “mostly.” On this sixth day He added this word because he is speaking of creation in general which contains evil in some part of it. Thus He said that it was very good, meaning its me’od is good [thus conveying the thought that even the small part of it which is evil is basically also good, as is explained further on]. It is this thought which is the basis of the saying of the Rabbis in Bereshith Rabbah:2319:5. “And, behold, it was very good. And, behold, it was good — this refers to death.” Similarly the Rabbis mentioned, “This means the evil inclination in man,”232Ibid., 9. “Were it not for the evil inclination, no one would build a house or marry a woman.” and, “This means the dispensation of punishment.”233Ibid. “He considers well how to mete it out” so as to cause a minimum of suffering. Onkelos also intended to convey this thought for he said here, “And, behold, it was very orderly,” meaning that the order was very properly arranged since the evil is needed for the preservation of the good, just as it is said, To every thing there is a season, and a time to every purpose under the heaven.234Ecclesiastes 3:1. Some Rabbis explain235Bereshith Rabbah 9:14. that on account of the superiority of man, He added special praise on his formation, i.e., that he is “very good.” (1) AND ALL THE HOST OF THEM. “The host of the earth” are those which have been mentioned: beasts, creeping things, fish, and all growing things, and also man. “The host of the heavens” are the two luminaries and the stars, mentioned above, just as it is written: And lest thou lift up thine eyes unto heaven, and when thou seest the sun and the moon and the stars, even all the host of heaven.236Deuteronomy 4:19. It also includes the Separate Intelligences,237Intelligences without matter, generally referring to the angels and spheres. See Rambam, Hilchoth Yesodei Hatorah 3:9. Also Moreh Nebuchim, I, 49: “The angels are likewise incorporeal; they are intelligences without matter, etc.” (Friedlander’s translation.) just as it is written: I saw the Eternal sitting on His throne, and all the host of heaven standing by Him;238I Kings 22:19. also, The Eternal will punish the host of the high heaven on high.239Isaiah 24:21. It is here [in the expression, all the host of them], that He has hinted at the formation of the angels in the work of creation. Similarly, the souls of men are included in the host of heaven.240Ramban is thus inferring that the souls of all men of all generations were created at the beginning of creation. This thought is clearly expressed in the other writings of Ramban. (See Ramban’s letter to Rabbeinu Yonah, Kithvei Haramban, Vol. I, 383. See also in same volume his Commentary to Job 38:21, p. 117). (3) AND G-D BLESSED THE SEVENTH DAY AND HE SANCTIFIED IT. He blessed it through the Manna. [On all other days of the week there fell one portion per person, whereas on the sixth day — the eve of the Sabbath — a double portion fell.] And He sanctified it through the Manna [by not having it fall on the Sabbath]. And the verse is written here with reference to the future. Thus are the words of Rabbeinu Shlomo [Rashi] as quoted from Bereshith Rabbah.24111:2. In the name of the Gaon Rav Saadia242Mentioned in Ibn Ezra here. they have said that the blessing and sanctification refer to those who observe the Sabbath, meaning that they will be blessed and sanctified. However, from the intimation of the verse it does not appear that it refers to something which will happen in the future.And Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra said that the blessing signifies additional well-being, that on the seventh day there is a renewal of procreative strength in the body, and in the soul, a greater capacity in the functioning of the reasoning power. And He sanctified it by not working on it as He did on the other days. Now Ibn Ezra’s interpretation is correct to those who believe in it for this additional well-being he speaks of is not perceptible to human senses.The truth is that the blessing on the Sabbath day is the fountain of blessings and constitutes the foundation of the world. And He sanctified it that it draw its sanctity from the Sanctuary on high. If you will understand this comment of mine you will grasp what the Rabbis have said in Bereshith Rabbah24311:9. concerning the Sabbath: [“Why did He bless the Sabbath? It is] because it has no partner,”244“Because it has no…” (l’phi sh’e) is a direct quote from the Midrash there. (See Theodore’s ed. of Bereshith Rabbah, p. 95, variants.) In the printed edition of the Midrash, the word l’phi (because) is missing. and that which they have further related [that G-d said to the Sabbath]: “The congregation of Israel will be thy partner.” And then you will comprehend that on the Sabbath there is truly an extra soul.,WHICH G-D IN CREATING HAD MADE. The work which should have been done on the Sabbath, He did in the double work which He executed on the sixth day, as it is explained in Bereshith Rabbah.24511:10. So says Rashi.Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra, however, explained simply that His work refers to the roots of all species to which He gave the power to make [i.e., to produce] after their own kind. [Thus the verse would translate: which G-d had created in order to make it.]To me, the explanation appears to be that He rested from all His work which He created out of nothing; to make from it all the works mentioned on the six days. Thus the verse is stating that G-d rested from creating and forming — from the creation He created on the first day, and from the formation He formed on the rest of the days. And it is possible that the word la’asoth (to make) is connected with the expression above in the verse, that in it He rested from all His work which He created from making, [thus making the word la’asoth to be understood as mila’asoth (from making)]. So also are the verses: Until he ceased ‘lispor’246Genesis 41:49. (to count), which means milispor (until he left off counting); And they ceased ‘livnoth’ (to build) the city,247Ibid., 11:8. which means milivnoth; Take heed to yourselves, that ye go not up into the mount;248Exodus 19:12. Aloth (going up) should be understood as me’aloth (from going up). And they departed not ‘mitzvath’ (the commandment of the king,249II Chronicles 8:15. which should be understood as mimitzvath (from the commandment); and thus in many other cases.Know that in the word la’asoth (to make, to do) is also included a hint that the six days of creation represent all the days of the world, i.e., that its existence will be six thousand years. For this reason the Rabbis have said:250Bereshith Rabbah 19:14. It is noteworthy here that Ramban’s explanation of the history of the world in terms of the six days of Creation was regarded with approval by many later authors. Bachya ben Asher (see my edition, I, pp. 54-6) and Menachem Ricanti copied it verbatim. Surprisingly it found its way into Egypt, and was wholly incorporated into the Midrash Rabbi David Hanagid, (Book of Exodus, pp. 201-2, ed. by A. Katz), grandson of Maimonides. “A day of the Holy One, blessed be He, is a thousand years.” Thus on the first two days the world was all water, and nothing was perfected during them. They allude to the first two thousand years when there was no one to call on the name of the Eternal. And so the Rabbis said:251Avodah Zarah 9a. “The first two thousand years there was desolation.” However, there was the creation of light on the first day corresponding to the thousand years of Adam who was the light of the world252Yerushalmi Shabbath 2, 6: “The first man was the light [literally: the candle] of the world.” and who recognized his Creator. Perhaps Enosh did not worship idols253See further, 4:26, Rashi. until the death of the first man.On the second day G-d said, ‘Let there be a firmament… and let it divide,’254Above, 1:6. for on that “day” [i.e., the second thousand-year period] Noah and his sons — the righteous ones —255See Note 225 above. were separated from the wicked, who were punished in water.On the third day, the dry land appeared; plants and trees began growing, and fruits ripened. This corresponds to the third thousand-year period which begins when Abraham was forty-eight years old,256In Avodah Zarah 9a it appears that Abraham, at the end of the first 2000 years, was 52 years old. for then he began to call the name of the Eternal. A righteous shoot257Jeremiah 23:5. did then spring forth in the world for he attracted many people to know the Eternal, just as the Rabbis interpreted the verse: And the souls that they had gotten in Haran258Genesis 12:5. “These are the converts which they converted.” (Bereshith Rabbah 39:21.) — and he commanded his household and his children after him, and they shall keep the way of the Eternal, to do righteousness and judgment.259Ibid., 18:19. This course continued until his descendants received the Torah on Sinai and the House of G-d was also built on that “day,” and then all commandments — which are “the fruits” of the world — were affirmed.Know that from the time twilight falls it is already considered as the following day. Therefore, the subject of every “day” begins somewhat before it, just as Abraham was born at the end of the second thousand years. And you will see similar examples for each and every day.On the fourth day the luminaries — the large and the small and the stars — were created. Its “day,” in the fourth thousand-year period, began seventy-two years after the First Sanctuary was built and continued until one hundred seventy-two years after the destruction of the Second Sanctuary. Now on this “day,” the children of Israel had light,260Exodus 10:23. for the glory of the Eternal filled the house of the Eternal,261I Kings 8:11. and the light of Israel became the fire upon the altar in the Sanctuary, resting there like a lion262So in Yoma 21b. Maharsha explains there the symbolism of the lion and the dog, that the first Sanctuary was built by King Solomon who was of the tribe of Judah, likened to a lion (see Genesis 49:9), while the second Sanctuary was built by the government of the Persians, symbolized by the dog (see Rosh Hashanah 4 a). consuming the offerings. Afterwards their light diminished and they were exiled to Babylon just as the light of the moon disappears before the birth of the new moon. Then the moon shone for them all the days of the Second Sanctuary, and the fire upon the altar rested on it like a dog.262So in Yoma 21b. Maharsha explains there the symbolism of the lion and the dog, that the first Sanctuary was built by King Solomon who was of the tribe of Judah, likened to a lion (see Genesis 49:9), while the second Sanctuary was built by the government of the Persians, symbolized by the dog (see Rosh Hashanah 4 a). And then the two luminaries disappeared towards eventide and the Sanctuary was destroyed.On the fifth day the waters swarmed with living creatures and fowl flying above the earth. This was a reference to the fifth thousand-year period which began one hundred seventy-two years after the destruction of the Second Sanctuary since, during this millennium, the nations will have dominion, and man will be made as the fishes of the sea, as the creeping things, that have no ruler over them; they take up all of them with the angle, catch them in their net and gather in their drag,263Habakkuk 1:14-15. and no one seeks the Eternal.On the sixth day in the morning, G-d said: ‘Let the earth bring forth the living creature after its kind, cattle and creeping thing, and beast of the earth after its kind.’264Above 1:24. Their creation took place before sunrise, even as it is written, The sun ariseth, they withdraw, and crouch in their dens.265Psalms 104:22. Then man was created in the image of G-d, and this is the time of his dominion, as it is written, Man goeth forth unto his work and to his labor until the evening.266Ibid., Verse 23. All this is an indication of the sixth thousand-year period in the beginning of which the “beasts,” symbolizing the kingdoms that knew not the Eternal,267Judges 2:10. will rule, but after a tenth thereof — in the proportion of the time from the first sparklings of the sun to the beginning of the day268In Pesachim 94a it is so explained that the time from the beginning of the day to the first sparklings of the sun is one tenth of the day. — the redeemer will come, as it is said concerning him, And his throne is as the sun before Me.269Psalms 89:37. This is the son of David, who was formed in the image of G-d, as it is written, And behold, there came with the clouds of heaven, one like unto a son of man, and he came even to the Ancient One of days, and he was brought near before Him. And there was given him dominion, and glory, and a kingdom.270Daniel 7:13-14., This will take place one hundred eighteen years after the completion of five thousand years,271This corresponds to the year 1358 C.E. See my biography of Ramban, p. 141, for further discussion of this matter. that the word of the Eternal by the mouth of Daniel might be accomplished:272See Ezra 1:1. And from the time that the continual burnt-offering shall be taken away, and the detestable thing that causeth appalment set up, there shall be a thousand two hundred and ninety days.273Daniel 12:11. Yamim here means “years.” Thus 172 years after the destruction of the Second Temple, the fifth millennium began. Add this to the 118 years after the beginning of the sixth millennium, and you have 1290 years, as mentioned in the verse.It would appear from the change of days — from the swarms of the waters and the fowl created on the fifth day to the beasts of the earth created on the sixth day — that in the beginning of the sixth thousand-year period a new ruling kingdom will arise, dreadful and terrible, and strong exceedingly,274Ibid., 7:7. Ramban refers here to rise of Islam. and approaching the truth more than the preceding ones.The seventh day which is the Sabbath alludes to the World to Come, “which will be wholly a Sabbath and will bring rest for life everlasting.”275Tamid VII, 4.And may G-d guard us during all the days and set our portion with His servants, the blameless ones.

(1) בראשית, at the beginning of time; this is the first moment which is indivisible into shorter periods. There had not been a concept “time” previous to this, i.e. there had only been unbroken continuity. [The author perceives “time” as one of the creations. Ed.],ברא, He had converted “nothing” into “something.” There had been no need to invoke “time” in order to accomplish this.,אלוקים, The expression “elo-ha” refers to something enduring, eternal. This is why Moses (Deut. 32,17) refers to demons, שדים, as לא אלו-ה, seeing that they are not eternal, are subject to death as our sages taught (Chagigah 16) The reason that the term “elo-ha” here appears in the plural mode, i.e. “elo-him,” is to teach us that G’d is the origin of all the various visible and invisible manifestations in the universe. This is what the prophet (Isaiah 6,3) has in mind when he described G’d as מלא כל הארץ כבודו, “the entire globe is a manifestation of His glory.” There is no other existence unless it has emanated from His existence. This is what Nechemyah 9,6 had in mind when he said ואתה מחיה את כלם, “You provide life for all of them.” When speaking of “appearances,” every phenomenon which is abstract as distinct from being tangible, is described by the generic term אלוקים. Professional, i.e. expert judges are called אלוהים, as they are able to pronounce judgment בצלם אלוקים, reflecting Divine wisdom. Their very profession is testimony to something enduring, divine in nature.,את השמים, the word שם refers to a place which is distant, as opposed to the word פה, which means “here.” Every plural mode when accompanied by an accented penultimate syllable vocalised with a patach signals 2 of something which are equi-distant from all sides. This is something possible only in connection with an orbiting planet. This is something which is not possible, i.e that two points are equidistant from the center unless they are part of an orbiting spherical planet. The Torah therefore says that G’d created the phenomenon which at this time is far distant from us in such a way that all its sides are equi-distant from us, in other words the phenomenon is a planet, something spherical.,ואת הארץ, and the center which is orbited by the planet. (2) והארץ היתה תהו ובהו, “this very center which was created at that time was composed of a mixture of raw materials, known as tohu, and its original external appearance is what is described as bohu. The reason is that the whole expanse of tohu was comprised of a uniform appearance. This explained that the first raw material was something entirely new. It is described as tohu to indicate that at that point it was merely something which had potential, the potential not yet having materialised, been converted to something actual. When we read in Samuel I 12,21 כי תהו המה, the meaning is that these phenomena did not exist in reality, they existed only in someone’s imagination. [a reference to pagan deities. Ed.] The appearance of this primordial raw material is described as bohu, meaning that as such it came to exist in actual fact, in real terms. Isaiah 34,11 “weights of emptiness.” This describes any phenomenon that does not retain its appearance for any length of time. It constantly changes like a chameleon.,וחשך, a reference to the air (atmosphere, totally dark which emanated at that time from the original raw material. על פני תהום, over the expanse of the two basic foundations which also emanated from the same origin and surrounded one another.,ורוח אלוקים, the energy propelling the planet is called ruach,” as we know from Psalms 104,4 עושה מלאכיו רוחות, “He energises His messengers.”,מרחפת על פני המים, they activated the atmosphere above the waters which at that time surrounded the earth. This is the reason why the part which was closer to the spherical planet became incandescent through its motion [friction. Ed.] This phenomenon is what we know as the original fire. On the other hand, the part of the energy which remained closer to the waters acquired a degree of frigidity from the proximity to the waters, so that only a small part of the atmosphere really became hot through revolving and giving off sparks of fiery light. (3) "Let there be light" - this is the light of the seven days [i.e., Or HaGanuz], which was for the use of those created without seed, and it will be [again] in the future, as the words of the Sages (may their memories be a blessing) Shabbat 30b: it will then be for that which is the future will "bring forth baked treats and fine clothing" without [needing] the power of seed. (4) וירא אלוקים את האור כי טוב, This describes the reason why G’d created the light, not that He “saw”” something new which He had not been aware of previously. It was because it was “good,” that G’d had created the light.,ויבדל אלוקים בין האור ובין החשך, the days (prior to the fourth day when the sun was placed in orbit) during which use was made of the “original light,” periods of light and darkness alternated due to causes other than the revolving of the planet around its own axis, i.e. due to the direct expression of G’d’s desire. He ensured that periods of light alternated with periods of darkness. (5) ויקרא אלוקים לאור יום; even though at that stage of creation “time” was not yet an operative term as we know it nowadays, i.e. the terms “day” and “night” were not yet used by anyone, G’d named these phenomena as such already at that time.,ויהי ערב ויהי בקר, although G’d had made a separation between the light and the darkness, assigning to each different time frames in which to be active, independent of the planet earth revolving on its axis, He arranged for a transition from one phenomenon to the other to take place gradually, step by step. This occurred by means of inserting a period known as evening preceding total night, and a period of dawn preceding bright sunlight, daylight. (6) יהי רקיע בתוך המים, let there be טבע, i.e. guidelines, rules governing the function of what is below and what is above the primordial waters. Just as there are such parameters surrounding our world, i.e. the globe we call “earth,” so there should be similar guidelines governing what is below the atmosphere and earth itself. The region in which air exists should become clearly defined. [the gaseous nature of air should not be allowed to escape into all directions of the universe beyond our globe so that creatures on earth would die from the lack of air. In other words, the atmosphere should be “enclosed” whether by gravitational or other forces is immaterial. Ed.] At the same time, air should be given enough space within which “to breathe,” so to speak. (7) "And G-d made the firmament" - and it was that when some of the elemental water was removed from under that part of the waters which became vaporous in nature, as it was when He said, "let the waters be gathered from beneath the heavens" Genesis 1:9, it was fit that the vaporous part would descend to that same place from which the that [non-vaporous portion of] waters was removed. But He made it such that that "firmament" that separates would have the power to stop and prevent the vaporous portion from descending - that's the "waters which are above the firmament", such that the transformed atmospheric portion would descend, while the vaporous would remain in its original place. Because of this, when the moist vapor reaches it [i.e., the firmament], it condenses and gives rise to rain, snow and hail. As they condense they descend, as it is said, "at the sound of His placing an abundance of water in the heavens" Jeremiah 10:13. - what it wanted by saying "heavens": the firmament which condenses the atmospheric part [of the waters], as it is said "And G-d called the firmament "heavens" Genesis 1:8. Now when the cloudy, excited vapor arrives there [at the firmament], it generates thunder and lightning, and it is said: "He lifts up clouds from the ends of the earth, thunder from the rain He makes" [continuation of verse quoted previously from Jeremiah]. Now, seeing as how some of the heavier watery element is above the lighter air, which from our perspectives is against their nature - this without doubt indicates the action of an volitional actor, intended such an outcome, as it is said, "the work of His hands shall the firmament declare" Psalms 19:2,"and it was so" - it remained thus against its nature. (8) ויקרא אלוקים לרקיע שמים. Seeing that activities occurring in the celestial regions reach us by means of G’d’s agents and not directly, the Torah had to tell us that G’d named the phenomenon, otherwise we would not have known this, [would have considered it as a result of an evolutionary process. Ed.] We know of this indirect activity of G’d when the Torah referred (verses 17-18) to “G’d placed them (the luminaries) in the רקיע השמים, and assigned to them the task to illuminate the earth, etc.” (9) יקוו המים; this does not mean that the waters should dry up, as many people interpreted it. These people said that the process would be achieved by a substantial part of the oceans freezing and turning to ice such as the polar regions, and that this would be caused by forces in the celestial regions. אל מקום אחד. The waters should not deviate from this location. As a result they became much higher than the surrounding land mass without crashing down on earth as our senses would have us think would be the case. This is why David tells us in Psalms 104,9: גבול שמת בל יעברון, “You have set them limits which they must not cross.” The meaning is that the waters must not flood the earth.” (10) ויקרא אלוקים ליבשה ארץ, G’d assigned a name which is applicable to the whole also to parts of it. The reason is that the particular part of the “earth” described previously as merely יבשה, is in reality the most important and productive part of the “earth.” (based on Moreh Nevuchim) Isaiah 45,18 already referred to this when he said of earth that לשבת יצרה, “G’d formed it in order that it be populated,” i.e. subterranean earth is of secondary importance, seeing one cannot cultivate it and make it one’s habitat.,"and G-d saw that it was good" - He wanted it thus because of the goal which is: the intended Goodness (11) דשא, herbs fit for consumption by animals. We find this expression used in this sense in Yoel 2,22כי דשאו נאות מדבר, “for its herbs (the ones for the beasts) are found in the pastures of the wilderness.”,עשב מזריע זרע, for consumption by human beings.,עץ פרי עושה פרי למינו, if it were a mixture of more than one species it would not be able to reproduce itself.,ויהי כן, it endured, in its original format, not becoming adulterated nor shedding any of its individuality. Had it absorbed parts of competing species it could not have procreated itself. (14) יהי מאורות ברקיע השמים, the planets created on the second day should now begin to function by providing light. Their influence should be concentrated on the “lower” universe, as it is visible to us with our senses. Everything mentioned in this paragraph refers to sensations perceived by the creatures on earth. By traversing pure waters on the way to earth, the light refracted by these luminaries is increased manifold. (15) להאיר על הארץ, they should dispense their light at a time when it is beneficial for the inhabitants of the earth.,ויהי כן, G’d’s directive was executed and became a permanent feature of natural law. (16) ויעש...ויתן...להאיר...ולמשול..ולהבדיל..כי טוב, all of these expressions refer to the luminaries and the other stars. The Torah first writes: ויעש, seeing that up until that point sun and moon had simply been part of all the other celestial bodies which had been created on the second day, or of “heaven,” whose creation had already been reported in verse 1. This is the reason why at this stage the Torah does not call the development of these luminaries an act of creation, ויברא or something similar, but merely writes ויעש, which describes the completion of a process that had already been begun previously. At this stage, G’d singled out these two luminaries from among all the planets and assigned them their function,The word כי טוב, “that it was good,” describes G’d’s impression after He had removed these luminaries from their original place in the universe, given them spherical shape so that they can orbit, and function as luminaries. (18) ולמשול ביום ובלילה, in order to bring new creatures into life in the “lower” regions of the universe, i.e. these living creatures, as opposed to the plants, required more than the light G’d had created on the first day. Seeing they are more important and more sophisticated beings they require exposure to better light in order to flourish.,ולהבדיל בין האור ובין החושך, to establish clear demarcations amongst the inhabitants of the lower regions of the universe, between when these respective luminaries were to shine, and when they were to set, i.e. to disappear from view. Basically, the meaning is the same as in verse 14 above. (20) יעופף על הארץ על פני רקיע השמים, in order to cleanse the air of the atmosphere for the benefit of the inhabitants of the earth from any excessive moisture in the air which had resulted through the creation of the rakia on the second “day.” (21) ויברא אלוקים את התנינים, the evolutionary powers of the waters did not suffice for this task. They could not produce the original sea-monsters without having been provided for this with seed by the Creator. (22) ויברך אותם אלוקים, seeing there were so many of them they would not achieve their purpose in this universe without such a Divine blessing. (24) תוצא הארץ נפש חיה, earth should produce living creatures possessing a quality of life superior to that of the plants.,ויהי כן, it was exactly so, i.e. without omissions or additions. If any of the components of these creatures (genes) were to be missing, they would lose the ability to procreate in kind. (25) “And G-d made the beasts of the earth according to their kind” – He gave to each species senses and capacities in accordance with what was necessary for that species. (26) ויאמר אלוקים נעשה, at this point G’d endowed His entourage to carry out the task assigned to it.,אדם, another one of the species referred to as נפש חיה, one known as אדם. This is why we read in Genesis 2,7 ויהי האדם לנפש חיה, “Adam became one of the species known as נפש חיה.”,בצלמנו, a species designed to live forever seeing that it is predominantly intellectual. By doing this, G’d provided an opening by means of His Torah to acquire an understanding of the nature of purely spiritual, disembodied beings such as angels. Our soul has been given the key to understand something about the nature of such beings.,כדמותנו, acting intelligently like the angels, though from free choice, not like the angels who act under Divine compulsion. In this respect, though the angels are celestial beings, they do not resemble man. In this respect man is a little more like G’d Himself than are the angels, though our habitat is in the “lower” regions of the universe. The principal difference between G’d’s total freedom of action and that of man’s is that G’d’s freedom of action is always put to a constructive use, whereas man frequently abuses his G’d given freedom to oppose the expressed will of His Creator. At any rate, not being hampered by the limitations imposed by having a body, the qualitative freedom of G’d is far superior to that of man, and this is why the Torah uses the comparative כדמותנו, to show that the comparison is limited. (27) בצלם אלוקים, when the word אלוקים appears as a description, i.e. in the nature of an adjective, it refers to creatures who are spiritual in their essence, not just that they possess spiritual potential. Such beings are devoid of such physical matter, are totally disembodied. This is what makes them basically infinite. This is the reason why such an adjective, attribute, is applied to G’d as well as to His angels. The term is also used in connection with judges, i.e. describing the predominating intellectual function they must perform if their decisions are to reflect true justice. Whereas it is an undisputed fact that the human intellect operates without direct dependence on any part of the body, that it does not age along with the remainder of the body it inhabits, but, on the contrary, sometimes improves while the body ages and becomes barely able to sustain the soul which inhabits it, and while it is also a fact that exercise of the intellect does not result in fatigue, etc, it is still not called אלוקים, something divine, but only צלם אלוקים, “something which mirrors something divine.” Until this intellect has acquired חכמה, i.e. a reverence for G’d and love for Him, its Creator, it is completely imperfect. It follows that it is man’s task to perfect his G’d given intelligence by acquiring the knowledge and insights which can be provided only by the study of Torah and by the practice of the laws of the Torah. If man, i.e. religiously atheistic intellectuals, do not use their intellect in the manner G’d meant for them to use it, it actually becomes a negative asset, a hindrance, so that in the end it turns out to be completely vain, as pointed out in Psalms 49,21 אדם ביקר ולא יבין נמשל כבהמות ידמו, “if man does not understand the divine gift his intellect represents he is comparable to the beasts which perish.” This entire lesson is condensed in the two words בצלם אלוקים. (28) וכבשה, this is not a directive to conquer earth with muscular power, but to subdue it by means of man’s superior intellect. It means that man is to use his intelligence to prevent predators from invading his habitats, demonstrating the fact that man is superior, can outwit the beasts.,ורדו, trapping the beasts, training them to bend to man’s will. (29) הנה נתתי לכם, as food to be consumed by man. (30) ולכל חית הארץ, but to all the beasts on earth including the birds and the domesticated animals I have allocated את כל ירק עשב, different kinds of herbs which are not generating seed. (31) את כל אשר עשה והנה טוב מאד, the accomplishment of a project containing many different parts is greater than the accomplishment of each part of such project successfully. Now that G’d had completed the entire project successfully, the Torah described this with the additional word מאד instead of merely טוב. ,יום הששי, this is the first day which is described as “the (sixth) day.” In other words, it was the first of many days known as “the sixth,” but this was the first such day. The specific function of the sixth day is to be the bridge between the ordinary weekdays and the Sabbath. The “six” days have been defined in Exodus 20,9-10 as the days on which “you will perform all your tasks involving work.” (1) ויכלו, when all the phenomena intended to comprise the physical universe had materialised (2) ויכל אלוקים ביום השביעי, at the beginning of the seventh “day,” a moment which is indivisible from the time frame which follows, so that both the six previous “days” were an entity in themselves, and the seventh day was a totally self-contained entity. Our sages in Bereshit Rabbah 10,9 describe G’d as knowing the precise moment between the sixth and seventh day and describe it as “thin as a hair’s breadth.” [I believe the problem confronting the sages was the statement that G’d had completed all His work in the six days, and yet the Torah speaks of Him completing, ויכל, His work on the ”seventh” day, something that appears to be a contradiction to the former statement. Ed.] ,וישבות ביום השביעי, G’d’s inactivity on the seventh day set it apart from the previous six days. (3) ויברך אלוקים את יום השביעי, this refers not only to the first Sabbath but to all subsequent Sabbath days. G’d endowed every Sabbath with this blessing so that it would more readily accommodate the additional “soul” He grants Jews on that day. Job 33,30 describes this phenomenon as לאור באור החיים, “designed that he may bask in the light of life.” Our sages (Beytzah 16) state that the words שבת וינפש in Exodus 31,17 refer to the loss of this additional soul at the end of the Sabbath.

(1) בראשית, at the beginning of time; this is the first moment which is indivisible into shorter periods. There had not been a concept “time” previous to this, i.e. there had only been unbroken continuity. [The author perceives “time” as one of the creations. Ed.],ברא, He had converted “nothing” into “something.” There had been no need to invoke “time” in order to accomplish this.,אלוקים, The expression “elo-ha” refers to something enduring, eternal. This is why Moses (Deut. 32,17) refers to demons, שדים, as לא אלו-ה, seeing that they are not eternal, are subject to death as our sages taught (Chagigah 16) The reason that the term “elo-ha” here appears in the plural mode, i.e. “elo-him,” is to teach us that G’d is the origin of all the various visible and invisible manifestations in the universe. This is what the prophet (Isaiah 6,3) has in mind when he described G’d as מלא כל הארץ כבודו, “the entire globe is a manifestation of His glory.” There is no other existence unless it has emanated from His existence. This is what Nechemyah 9,6 had in mind when he said ואתה מחיה את כלם, “You provide life for all of them.” When speaking of “appearances,” every phenomenon which is abstract as distinct from being tangible, is described by the generic term אלוקים. Professional, i.e. expert judges are called אלוהים, as they are able to pronounce judgment בצלם אלוקים, reflecting Divine wisdom. Their very profession is testimony to something enduring, divine in nature.,את השמים, the word שם refers to a place which is distant, as opposed to the word פה, which means “here.” Every plural mode when accompanied by an accented penultimate syllable vocalised with a patach signals 2 of something which are equi-distant from all sides. This is something possible only in connection with an orbiting planet. This is something which is not possible, i.e that two points are equidistant from the center unless they are part of an orbiting spherical planet. The Torah therefore says that G’d created the phenomenon which at this time is far distant from us in such a way that all its sides are equi-distant from us, in other words the phenomenon is a planet, something spherical.,ואת הארץ, and the center which is orbited by the planet. (2) והארץ היתה תהו ובהו, “this very center which was created at that time was composed of a mixture of raw materials, known as tohu, and its original external appearance is what is described as bohu. The reason is that the whole expanse of tohu was comprised of a uniform appearance. This explained that the first raw material was something entirely new. It is described as tohu to indicate that at that point it was merely something which had potential, the potential not yet having materialised, been converted to something actual. When we read in Samuel I 12,21 כי תהו המה, the meaning is that these phenomena did not exist in reality, they existed only in someone’s imagination. [a reference to pagan deities. Ed.] The appearance of this primordial raw material is described as bohu, meaning that as such it came to exist in actual fact, in real terms. Isaiah 34,11 “weights of emptiness.” This describes any phenomenon that does not retain its appearance for any length of time. It constantly changes like a chameleon.,וחשך, a reference to the air (atmosphere, totally dark which emanated at that time from the original raw material. על פני תהום, over the expanse of the two basic foundations which also emanated from the same origin and surrounded one another.,ורוח אלוקים, the energy propelling the planet is called ruach,” as we know from Psalms 104,4 עושה מלאכיו רוחות, “He energises His messengers.”,מרחפת על פני המים, they activated the atmosphere above the waters which at that time surrounded the earth. This is the reason why the part which was closer to the spherical planet became incandescent through its motion [friction. Ed.] This phenomenon is what we know as the original fire. On the other hand, the part of the energy which remained closer to the waters acquired a degree of frigidity from the proximity to the waters, so that only a small part of the atmosphere really became hot through revolving and giving off sparks of fiery light. (3) "Let there be light" - this is the light of the seven days [i.e., Or HaGanuz], which was for the use of those created without seed, and it will be [again] in the future, as the words of the Sages (may their memories be a blessing) Shabbat 30b: it will then be for that which is the future will "bring forth baked treats and fine clothing" without [needing] the power of seed. (4) וירא אלוקים את האור כי טוב, This describes the reason why G’d created the light, not that He “saw”” something new which He had not been aware of previously. It was because it was “good,” that G’d had created the light.,ויבדל אלוקים בין האור ובין החשך, the days (prior to the fourth day when the sun was placed in orbit) during which use was made of the “original light,” periods of light and darkness alternated due to causes other than the revolving of the planet around its own axis, i.e. due to the direct expression of G’d’s desire. He ensured that periods of light alternated with periods of darkness. (5) ויקרא אלוקים לאור יום; even though at that stage of creation “time” was not yet an operative term as we know it nowadays, i.e. the terms “day” and “night” were not yet used by anyone, G’d named these phenomena as such already at that time.,ויהי ערב ויהי בקר, although G’d had made a separation between the light and the darkness, assigning to each different time frames in which to be active, independent of the planet earth revolving on its axis, He arranged for a transition from one phenomenon to the other to take place gradually, step by step. This occurred by means of inserting a period known as evening preceding total night, and a period of dawn preceding bright sunlight, daylight. (6) יהי רקיע בתוך המים, let there be טבע, i.e. guidelines, rules governing the function of what is below and what is above the primordial waters. Just as there are such parameters surrounding our world, i.e. the globe we call “earth,” so there should be similar guidelines governing what is below the atmosphere and earth itself. The region in which air exists should become clearly defined. [the gaseous nature of air should not be allowed to escape into all directions of the universe beyond our globe so that creatures on earth would die from the lack of air. In other words, the atmosphere should be “enclosed” whether by gravitational or other forces is immaterial. Ed.] At the same time, air should be given enough space within which “to breathe,” so to speak. (7) "And G-d made the firmament" - and it was that when some of the elemental water was removed from under that part of the waters which became vaporous in nature, as it was when He said, "let the waters be gathered from beneath the heavens" Genesis 1:9, it was fit that the vaporous part would descend to that same place from which the that [non-vaporous portion of] waters was removed. But He made it such that that "firmament" that separates would have the power to stop and prevent the vaporous portion from descending - that's the "waters which are above the firmament", such that the transformed atmospheric portion would descend, while the vaporous would remain in its original place. Because of this, when the moist vapor reaches it [i.e., the firmament], it condenses and gives rise to rain, snow and hail. As they condense they descend, as it is said, "at the sound of His placing an abundance of water in the heavens" Jeremiah 10:13. - what it wanted by saying "heavens": the firmament which condenses the atmospheric part [of the waters], as it is said "And G-d called the firmament "heavens" Genesis 1:8. Now when the cloudy, excited vapor arrives there [at the firmament], it generates thunder and lightning, and it is said: "He lifts up clouds from the ends of the earth, thunder from the rain He makes" [continuation of verse quoted previously from Jeremiah]. Now, seeing as how some of the heavier watery element is above the lighter air, which from our perspectives is against their nature - this without doubt indicates the action of an volitional actor, intended such an outcome, as it is said, "the work of His hands shall the firmament declare" Psalms 19:2,"and it was so" - it remained thus against its nature. (8) ויקרא אלוקים לרקיע שמים. Seeing that activities occurring in the celestial regions reach us by means of G’d’s agents and not directly, the Torah had to tell us that G’d named the phenomenon, otherwise we would not have known this, [would have considered it as a result of an evolutionary process. Ed.] We know of this indirect activity of G’d when the Torah referred (verses 17-18) to “G’d placed them (the luminaries) in the רקיע השמים, and assigned to them the task to illuminate the earth, etc.” (9) יקוו המים; this does not mean that the waters should dry up, as many people interpreted it. These people said that the process would be achieved by a substantial part of the oceans freezing and turning to ice such as the polar regions, and that this would be caused by forces in the celestial regions. אל מקום אחד. The waters should not deviate from this location. As a result they became much higher than the surrounding land mass without crashing down on earth as our senses would have us think would be the case. This is why David tells us in Psalms 104,9: גבול שמת בל יעברון, “You have set them limits which they must not cross.” The meaning is that the waters must not flood the earth.” (10) ויקרא אלוקים ליבשה ארץ, G’d assigned a name which is applicable to the whole also to parts of it. The reason is that the particular part of the “earth” described previously as merely יבשה, is in reality the most important and productive part of the “earth.” (based on Moreh Nevuchim) Isaiah 45,18 already referred to this when he said of earth that לשבת יצרה, “G’d formed it in order that it be populated,” i.e. subterranean earth is of secondary importance, seeing one cannot cultivate it and make it one’s habitat.,"and G-d saw that it was good" - He wanted it thus because of the goal which is: the intended Goodness (11) דשא, herbs fit for consumption by animals. We find this expression used in this sense in Yoel 2,22כי דשאו נאות מדבר, “for its herbs (the ones for the beasts) are found in the pastures of the wilderness.”,עשב מזריע זרע, for consumption by human beings.,עץ פרי עושה פרי למינו, if it were a mixture of more than one species it would not be able to reproduce itself.,ויהי כן, it endured, in its original format, not becoming adulterated nor shedding any of its individuality. Had it absorbed parts of competing species it could not have procreated itself. (14) יהי מאורות ברקיע השמים, the planets created on the second day should now begin to function by providing light. Their influence should be concentrated on the “lower” universe, as it is visible to us with our senses. Everything mentioned in this paragraph refers to sensations perceived by the creatures on earth. By traversing pure waters on the way to earth, the light refracted by these luminaries is increased manifold. (15) להאיר על הארץ, they should dispense their light at a time when it is beneficial for the inhabitants of the earth.,ויהי כן, G’d’s directive was executed and became a permanent feature of natural law. (16) ויעש...ויתן...להאיר...ולמשול..ולהבדיל..כי טוב, all of these expressions refer to the luminaries and the other stars. The Torah first writes: ויעש, seeing that up until that point sun and moon had simply been part of all the other celestial bodies which had been created on the second day, or of “heaven,” whose creation had already been reported in verse 1. This is the reason why at this stage the Torah does not call the development of these luminaries an act of creation, ויברא or something similar, but merely writes ויעש, which describes the completion of a process that had already been begun previously. At this stage, G’d singled out these two luminaries from among all the planets and assigned them their function,The word כי טוב, “that it was good,” describes G’d’s impression after He had removed these luminaries from their original place in the universe, given them spherical shape so that they can orbit, and function as luminaries. (18) ולמשול ביום ובלילה, in order to bring new creatures into life in the “lower” regions of the universe, i.e. these living creatures, as opposed to the plants, required more than the light G’d had created on the first day. Seeing they are more important and more sophisticated beings they require exposure to better light in order to flourish.,ולהבדיל בין האור ובין החושך, to establish clear demarcations amongst the inhabitants of the lower regions of the universe, between when these respective luminaries were to shine, and when they were to set, i.e. to disappear from view. Basically, the meaning is the same as in verse 14 above. (20) יעופף על הארץ על פני רקיע השמים, in order to cleanse the air of the atmosphere for the benefit of the inhabitants of the earth from any excessive moisture in the air which had resulted through the creation of the rakia on the second “day.” (21) ויברא אלוקים את התנינים, the evolutionary powers of the waters did not suffice for this task. They could not produce the original sea-monsters without having been provided for this with seed by the Creator. (22) ויברך אותם אלוקים, seeing there were so many of them they would not achieve their purpose in this universe without such a Divine blessing. (24) תוצא הארץ נפש חיה, earth should produce living creatures possessing a quality of life superior to that of the plants.,ויהי כן, it was exactly so, i.e. without omissions or additions. If any of the components of these creatures (genes) were to be missing, they would lose the ability to procreate in kind. (25) “And G-d made the beasts of the earth according to their kind” – He gave to each species senses and capacities in accordance with what was necessary for that species. (26) ויאמר אלוקים נעשה, at this point G’d endowed His entourage to carry out the task assigned to it.,אדם, another one of the species referred to as נפש חיה, one known as אדם. This is why we read in Genesis 2,7 ויהי האדם לנפש חיה, “Adam became one of the species known as נפש חיה.”,בצלמנו, a species designed to live forever seeing that it is predominantly intellectual. By doing this, G’d provided an opening by means of His Torah to acquire an understanding of the nature of purely spiritual, disembodied beings such as angels. Our soul has been given the key to understand something about the nature of such beings.,כדמותנו, acting intelligently like the angels, though from free choice, not like the angels who act under Divine compulsion. In this respect, though the angels are celestial beings, they do not resemble man. In this respect man is a little more like G’d Himself than are the angels, though our habitat is in the “lower” regions of the universe. The principal difference between G’d’s total freedom of action and that of man’s is that G’d’s freedom of action is always put to a constructive use, whereas man frequently abuses his G’d given freedom to oppose the expressed will of His Creator. At any rate, not being hampered by the limitations imposed by having a body, the qualitative freedom of G’d is far superior to that of man, and this is why the Torah uses the comparative כדמותנו, to show that the comparison is limited. (27) בצלם אלוקים, when the word אלוקים appears as a description, i.e. in the nature of an adjective, it refers to creatures who are spiritual in their essence, not just that they possess spiritual potential. Such beings are devoid of such physical matter, are totally disembodied. This is what makes them basically infinite. This is the reason why such an adjective, attribute, is applied to G’d as well as to His angels. The term is also used in connection with judges, i.e. describing the predominating intellectual function they must perform if their decisions are to reflect true justice. Whereas it is an undisputed fact that the human intellect operates without direct dependence on any part of the body, that it does not age along with the remainder of the body it inhabits, but, on the contrary, sometimes improves while the body ages and becomes barely able to sustain the soul which inhabits it, and while it is also a fact that exercise of the intellect does not result in fatigue, etc, it is still not called אלוקים, something divine, but only צלם אלוקים, “something which mirrors something divine.” Until this intellect has acquired חכמה, i.e. a reverence for G’d and love for Him, its Creator, it is completely imperfect. It follows that it is man’s task to perfect his G’d given intelligence by acquiring the knowledge and insights which can be provided only by the study of Torah and by the practice of the laws of the Torah. If man, i.e. religiously atheistic intellectuals, do not use their intellect in the manner G’d meant for them to use it, it actually becomes a negative asset, a hindrance, so that in the end it turns out to be completely vain, as pointed out in Psalms 49,21 אדם ביקר ולא יבין נמשל כבהמות ידמו, “if man does not understand the divine gift his intellect represents he is comparable to the beasts which perish.” This entire lesson is condensed in the two words בצלם אלוקים. (28) וכבשה, this is not a directive to conquer earth with muscular power, but to subdue it by means of man’s superior intellect. It means that man is to use his intelligence to prevent predators from invading his habitats, demonstrating the fact that man is superior, can outwit the beasts.,ורדו, trapping the beasts, training them to bend to man’s will. (29) הנה נתתי לכם, as food to be consumed by man. (30) ולכל חית הארץ, but to all the beasts on earth including the birds and the domesticated animals I have allocated את כל ירק עשב, different kinds of herbs which are not generating seed. (31) את כל אשר עשה והנה טוב מאד, the accomplishment of a project containing many different parts is greater than the accomplishment of each part of such project successfully. Now that G’d had completed the entire project successfully, the Torah described this with the additional word מאד instead of merely טוב. ,יום הששי, this is the first day which is described as “the (sixth) day.” In other words, it was the first of many days known as “the sixth,” but this was the first such day. The specific function of the sixth day is to be the bridge between the ordinary weekdays and the Sabbath. The “six” days have been defined in Exodus 20,9-10 as the days on which “you will perform all your tasks involving work.” (1) ויכלו, when all the phenomena intended to comprise the physical universe had materialised (2) ויכל אלוקים ביום השביעי, at the beginning of the seventh “day,” a moment which is indivisible from the time frame which follows, so that both the six previous “days” were an entity in themselves, and the seventh day was a totally self-contained entity. Our sages in Bereshit Rabbah 10,9 describe G’d as knowing the precise moment between the sixth and seventh day and describe it as “thin as a hair’s breadth.” [I believe the problem confronting the sages was the statement that G’d had completed all His work in the six days, and yet the Torah speaks of Him completing, ויכל, His work on the ”seventh” day, something that appears to be a contradiction to the former statement. Ed.] ,וישבות ביום השביעי, G’d’s inactivity on the seventh day set it apart from the previous six days. (3) ויברך אלוקים את יום השביעי, this refers not only to the first Sabbath but to all subsequent Sabbath days. G’d endowed every Sabbath with this blessing so that it would more readily accommodate the additional “soul” He grants Jews on that day. Job 33,30 describes this phenomenon as לאור באור החיים, “designed that he may bask in the light of life.” Our sages (Beytzah 16) state that the words שבת וינפש in Exodus 31,17 refer to the loss of this additional soul at the end of the Sabbath.

(1) There is a midrash (Bereishit Rabbah 1), that the reason why [the Torah] opened with a "bet" and not with an "aleph", is because the "bet" has a connotation of blessing ("B"racha), and "aleph" has a connotation of cursing ("A"rirah). The Holy One, blessed be He, said: I will open with a "bet", with a connotation of blessing, and if it would only be that it should be able to be fulfilled! Alternatively: [The reason the Torah opens with a "bet", which equals two in gematria] is because of the two worlds that were created, this world and the world to come. Alternatively: [The reason the Torah opens with a "bet", which equals two in gematria] is because of the two Torahs, the written Torah, and the oral Torah, to teach you that the world was created in the merit of the Torah and its learners. Bereishit: The [same Hebrew] letters as "Bet Resh" [="first house"], meaning the first Temple, as it says (Jeremiah 17:12) "An honorable throne, exalted from the beginning, the place of our Temple." Alternatively: The [same Hebrew] letters as "A' B'Tishrei" [="1st of Tishrei"], which was when the world was created. Alternatively: The [same Hebrew] letters as "Yirei Shabbat" [="Awe of the Sabbath"], to tell you that the world was created in the merit of Shabbat. Alternatively: The [same Hebrew] letters as "Brit Aish" [="Covenant, Fire"], that in the merit of "covenant", which is circumcision, and in the merit of fire, which is the Torah, we will be saved from the judgement of Gehinnom. Alternatively: The [same Hebrew] letters as "Briat Yesh" [="Creation of something/310"], for the creation of 310 worlds for every righteous individual.,"Bereishit Bara": In numerical value, [the letters also equal] "On Rosh Hashanah the world was created.",Bereishit: In numerical value, [the letters also equal] "With the Torah He created", because the world was created because of the Torah which is called "Reshit". Alternatively: In numerical value, [the letters also equal] "6 Orders [of the Mishnah]". Alternatively: The numerical value is "Israel is chosen among the nations", and also in numerical value "613 He created", that He created the world for the sake of Israel keeping the 613 commandments. "Bereishit", He created firmament, land, heavens, sea, abyss. Alternatively: First Elohim saw that Israel would accept His Torah. (2) Chaos and void (tohu vabohu): [This phrase appears] two [times]. Here, and the other one is (Jeremiah 4:23) "I have seen the earth and behold, it is chaos and void." [This] teaches that the Holy One, blessed be He, foresaw the destruction of the Temple when He created the world, [and] that it would be in the year tohu (the letters that are equal to the number, 411); since, behold the first Temple stood for 410 years and was destroyed in the 411th year. And the second Temple stood the numerical equivalent of [the word,] hayita (420), and this is [why it states] "vehaarets haita" ("and the earth was;" which is the phrase that precedes tohu in this verse). And afterwards, [it is written], "darkness," a hint to the exiles. And so is it expounded in Bereishit Rabbah 2:4. Another explanation: "and the earth was chaos and void" has a numerical equivalent (gematria) of 'two thousand years without Torah.',And the spirit of God was hovering: has a numerical equivalent (gematria) of 'this is the spirit of messiah.',And darkness was upon the depths: There are two [places this appears] according to the tradition: here and the other is (Job 38:19) "and darkness, where is its place?" This [refers to] what they stated (Chagigah 11b), that one should not ask, "What is before, what is after?" The explanation of "and darkness, where is its place?" is that one should not ask, "what was the place of darkness [at] first.,And the spirit of God: [This phrase appears] two [times] as a relational [or possessive phrase]. Here, and the other one is (II Chronicles 24:20) "and the spirit of God clothed Zecharya." One could here too read [as if it was written], "and the spirit of God clothed;" the explanation [of which] is that because of His clothing, He said, "let there be light," after which is written, "and there was light." This is what our Rabbis, of blessed memory, expounded (Bereishit Rabbah 3:4), "from a little of his clothing, He created light."

(1) בראשית ברא אלוקים, let the “intellectuals” realize that all the words of our sages and their interpretations are true and accurate. This is what the Talmud (Shabbat 63) had in mind when it quoted Rav Kahane saying that he had studied the Talmud until the age of 18 and had not yet appreciated that although the laws of the Torah are derived from the text, none of the interpretations are such that they can uproot the plain meaning of the text. They are based on anomalies in the text, not on the text itself wherever the law derived from the Torah appears to conflict with the plain meaning of the text. One example is Genesis 2,4 where the word בהבראם, a most unusual construction, used by the sages to declare that the world was created “for the sake of, or with the help of אברהם,” (Bereshit Rabbah 12,9) seeing that the letters in that word are the same as the ones in the name אברהם, [though in a different sequence. Ed.] I shall list the explanations of earlier commentators of old, in order to demonstrate why I did not follow in their footsteps. Some scholars understand the first verse to mean that “at the beginning G’d created heaven and earth.” This is an erroneous explanation, seeing that water preceded the creation of heaven and earth as we know from verse 2 where “the spirit of G’d” is described as already “hovering over the surface of the water.” Moreover, the Torah did not write בראשונה, which would have been appropriate if it had wanted to tell us that heaven and earth preceded all other phenomena in the universe. The word בראשית is in a construct mode, as in Genesis 10,10 ותהי ראשית ממלכתו בבל “the mainstay of his kingdom was Babylon.” A construct mode like this cannot describe the commencement of something but refers to something already in existence. As to the scholars who understand the word as equivalent to the word תחלה in Hoseah 1,2 i.e. so that it would mean “at the beginning G’d created the heaven,” i.e. before He created heaven and earth there was chaos, darkness on the face of the water, etc., so that it emerges that water had been created first, this too is nonsense. How could the Torah refer to a state of the earth prior to creation of the heaven? The plain meaning of the text is, as occurs many times, that something may be mentioned first in one instance although elsewhere this same phenomenon is mentioned as having occurred at a later stage. In Genesis 9,18 we are told about the three sons of Noach who left the ark after the deluge being Shem, Cham and Yephet, and the Torah adds that Cham was the father of Canaan. Although the information about Canaan is quite out of place at this juncture, the fact that later on the Torah tells us that Noach cursed Canaan, makes it necessary to mention him here, as otherwise we would not have known who this Canaan was whom Noachh cursed in verse 25 of the same chapter. We have a similar situation in Genesis 35,22 where, although Reuven’s conduct with Yaakov’s concubine Bilhah is mentioned, Yaakov’s reaction is not mentioned until shortly before his death when he explains why Reuven had not been viewed by him as suitable to occupy the position normally accorded to a firstborn (Genesis 49,3-4). In 35,22 the Torah already tells us that Yaakov had heard about what Reuven had done. Had the Torah not done so, the reader would have been taken aback at Yaakov’s remonstrating with Reuven at this late stage. There are many such examples. Our entire paragraph here was written by Moses in order for us to understand what is written in the Ten Commandments concerning the reason why the Sabbath is holy, i.e. that it is a symbol reminding us of the fact that G’d created the universe in 6 days and rested on the seventh day. (Exodus 20,10) If anyone were to think that the universe as such had already existed then in the format that we see it now, the Torah corrects such thinking by continuing with (2) והארץ היתה, the earth had preceded and existed in a chaotic form, as elaborated on by the prophet Jeremiah (Jeremiah 4,23) והנה ראיתי את הארץ והנה תהו ובוהו ואל השמים ואין אורם...ראיתי ואין אדם מעוף השמים ועד בהמה נדדו הלכו (Jeremiah 9,9) ,This verse explains the meaning of “Tohu vavohu” in greater detail, i.e. that there was no kind of life on earth at that stage.,וחושך על פני תהום, this is a reference to the absence of light in the heaven.,ורוח אלוקים מרחפת (מנשבת) על פני המים, we had to be told that G’d’s wind was active at that stage, else verse 9 of this chapter in which G’d issues a directive for the waters to collect in a contiguous area would not make sense, as we could not have understood how the waters were made to assemble all in one area of the globe. We find the role of this רוח of G’d in Exodus 14,21 when it prepared the manifestation of the sea splitting to allow the Israelites to cross it safely and on dry land. (3) ויאמר אלוקים יהי אור, by means of this directive G’d meant to correct the fact that up until then everything was in complete darkness, (4) וירא אלוקים את האור, He looked at its appearance and it was good. The statement is similar to Yocheved saying ותרא אותו כי טוב, (Exodus 2,2) although he had been born three months prematurely, just as had Samuel. In practice, the fact that all his vital features including the nails of his toes and fingers and the hairs on his head had grown, gave her the feeling that he was “good,” i.e. a viable human being, so that she proceeded to hide him for three months because she knew that he was not premature in the sense of not being viable.,ויבדל אלוקים בין האור ובין החושך, He arranged for the day to be divided into 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of night. The day commences with a period of light and concludes with a period of darkness. The reason is that the beginning of directives issued during the creative process commenced with the command: “let there be light.” (5) ויקרא אלוקים ליום אור, you may ask yourself what possible need there was for G’d to call this light “day” already at the time He created it; however this is the way Moses worded it when he wrote down the Torah. Whenever, in Scriptures, G’d is recorded as mentioning “day” and “night,” as for instance in Genesis 8,22, where He made the promise that “henceforth the alternating manifestations of day and night will not cease to occur regularly,” יום ולילה לא ישבותון, this is a reference to the original light created on the first day. G’d always called this “light” “night and day.” Similarly, every time in this chapter when we encounter the expression ויקרא אלוקים, as well as when we read in Numbers 13,15 ויקרא אלוקים להושע בן נון יהושע, whereas the same man as representative of the tribe of Ephrayim had been referred to as הושע only 7 verses earlier as הושע. This was the same man, who, previously, when he appeared in his position of Moses’ personal valet was already known as יהושע, (Exodus 24,13) It is customary among kings that when they appoint a person to a position of eminence to signal this by changing the name of such a person. One well known example of this is Pharaoh calling Joseph צפנת פנח upon appointing him as viceroy of Egypt (Genesis 41,45) Other such examples are found in Daniel 1,7, etc.,ולחשך קרא לילה, “whereas He had already named the darkness ‘night.’” Seeing that mention of light always precedes mention of darkness, the Torah first told us of the name G’d gave to “light.”,ויהי ערב ויהי בקר. It is noteworthy that the Torah here did not write ויהי לילה, ויהי יום, but it wrote ערב. This is the period when G’d made the light of the first day fade. The subsequent expression ויהי בקר refers to the morning after the night when dawn rose. At this point the first of the 6 “days” of G’d’s creative activity of which He spoke in the Ten Commandments had come to an end. After that the second “day” began and is introduced with the words ויאמר אלוקים יהי רקיע בתוך המים. The purpose of our verse here was not to tell us that that evening and morning were part of the same day. The verse was needed only to tell us how the 6 “days” are accounted for, i.e. that the morning completed the night, which was the end of that day and the beginning of the second day. (6) ויאמר אלוקים יהי רקיע, after the first day had been concluded with its morning, G’d issued a new directive.,רקיע, the word (noun) is a participle describing a creature such as עשיר which means the same as מעושר, “someone who has been equipped with wealth,” or the word חסיד, used to describe a pious individual. This noun is also a derivative from the word חסד, loving kindness, i.e. a חסיד is a creature equipped with this attribute of loving G’d. Now the universe was to be equipped with a horizon. Seeing that from the earth until the highest regions of the heaven there was an unbroken region filled with water, G’d now separated these waters in the “middle,” by making this firmament, expanse of atmosphere we call horizon. This רקיע appears as if stretched from east to west and from north to south effectively separating the “upper” layers of water from the “lower” ones. Seeing that G’d did not assign any specific function to the waters until the third “day” when He told the waters to congregate in a specific region so that the dry land beneath it should become visible, the expression “it was good,” is not mentioned in connection with the second day. This is compensated for on the third “day,” when this statement “it was good” appears twice in the Torah’s report. It appears after the waters complied with G’d’s directive, and after the earth, i.e. the dry land, produced the vegetation including fruit-bearing trees which G’d had commanded it to produce.,בין מים למים, so that half the waters would remain in the “upper” regions and half in the “lower” regions. (8) ויקרא אלוקים לרקיע שמים, as I have already explained previously, the rakia is referred to as shamayim throughout the Torah, whereas the celestial regions in the spiritual sense are called shm’ey hashamyim, “the upper heavens.” Compare Nechemyah 9,6 where we are told:אתה עשית את השמים, שמי השמים וכל צבאם, “it is You Who have made the sky, the heavens and all their hosts.” In Deuteronomy 10,14 Moses wrote: והן לה' אלוקיך שמים ושמי השמים, “both the skies and the heavens are Yours, O Lord.” ,ויהי ערב ויהי בקר יום שני, the day faded towards evening until the second morning appeared. Thereby the second of the six days of G’d’s creative activity had come to a close. With this morning the third “day” commenced. (9) ויאמר אלוקים יקוו המים... אל מקום אחד, we already explained on verse 2 that the means employed to achieve this was the ruach, the wind. This is the reason why we were told already in verse 2 that “G’d’s wind (spirit) hovered over the expanse of the deep, something which occurred by making the rakia. (between heaven and earth) Now the water above the earth were concentrated in one region, location. ,ותראה היבשה, a reference to the earth which had already been created at the same time as the heaven, before the light had been created, as I explained on verse 2.. It does not matter whether this occurred spread over a short period or over a long period. (10) ליבשה ארץ, as I explained earlier, the “yabashah” is none other than the earth mentioned in verse 1 as הארץ, as well as in many other places. (11) דשא, every kind of herb collectively is known as דשא whereas every individual type of herb is known as עשב.,עושה פרי למינו, according to the plain meaning of the text the word למינו here refers to the herbs. When the word occurs again in connection with the trees, it includes the עשב which the text had defined as carrying within it its own seed.,עושה פרי למינו, an apple tree would produce apples, not dates. ,אשר זרעו בו, the seed would be within the fruit, not within the trunk. This would enable man to plant this kind of tree as well as others, each of their respective species. (14) יהי מארות, “let there be luminaries;” it is common for the Torah to apply a singular mode to nouns described in the plural, such as in Numbers 9,6 ויהי אנשים אשר היו טמאים, “there was (singular) men who were ritually impure, etc." The meaning of our verse here is: “let a certain process occur as a result of which luminaries will materialise in the sky of the heavens.”,ברקיע השמים, in the firmament which spans the heavens.,ברקיע, seeing that the word ברקיע is in the construct mode, linked to the word following it, i.e. “the sky of the heaven, the ra-kia, the vowel under the letter ר is a brief one, chataf, such as the difference between katzir, harvest, and k’tzir chittim, “wheat harvest,” where the word k’tzir is in the construct mode, belonging to the word chittim, wheat. (Ruth 2,23) להבדיל בין היום ובין הלילה, the Torah had already mentioned earlier (verse 4) that G’d had made a separation between light and dark, so what need was there for the luminaries in order to accomplish this? The fact is that up until this point the precise point when night or day commences and ends had not yet been defined. This came about only when the sunrise and sunset became visible observable phenomena on earth. Similarly, the advent of visible stars in the sky now signaled that dusk had come to an end. להבדיל בין (תחלת) היום ובין (תחלת) הלילה, to separate night from the beginning of the day and day from the beginning of the night.,והיו לאותות ולמועדים, an oblique reference to Kings II 20,8-9 where King Chizkiyah had asked G’d for a sign in the sky that Isaiah’s promise that the decree of his death had been cancelled and that G’d had added another 15 years to his life was definitive. We have other verses (Yoel 3,3) as well as Jeremiah 10,2 in which these phenomena in the sky are described as clear signals by G’d to man of things to come.,ולמועדים, the orbit of the moon which renews its path every 29 and a half days serves as a legal instrument used in determining dates which appear in documents used by the Jewish people. Compare what David wrote about this in Psalms 104,19,ולימים, and as days. Upon investigation it will be seen that certain stars orbit at intervals of exactly 24 hours.,ושנים, and as years, a reference to the four seasons of the year, which together comprise an entire year. (15) והיו למאורות, they should provide light for the physical universe. (16) הקטן, the smaller of the two. (18) ולהבדיל בין האור ובין החושך, between the period when light begins and the period when darkness begins. Sunrise is the period when light begins, whereas the clear visibility of the stars in the evening is the period when the darkness begins. (20) יעופף על הארץ, even though its creation originated from the waters, it would grow to maturity on earth. (21) התנינים הגדולים, even though, in the previous verse, the Torah reports on the directive for the waters to produce multiple reproductions of each species which has its habitat in the waters, and we could have thought that this did not include gigantic creatures such as whales, the fact is they (it) too had been produced by the waters at the same time. The species described as Leviathan, Nachash beriach and Leviathan beriach in Isaiah 27,1 and the Leviathan described in Job 40,25 are what our verse here refers to. (22) ויברך אותם אלוקים, you will note that all the categories of living creatures whom G’d created were blessed by Him.,ומלאו את המים, this is in the imperative mode, but in a relatively weak conjugation such as אמרו לאלוקים in Psalms 663, or in Hoseah 2,5 רדפו מהר. If the Torah had written mal-u instead mil-u this would have been an imperative in the strong conjugation, comparable to G’d commanding Moses and Aaron with the words dabb-ru (Exodus 12,3.),ירב. The word means “may it increase in numbers,” an alternate way of saying yirbeh. We have a similar construction in yifen and yifneh respectively, meaning: “he will turn.” Any verb that can accept the letter ה at the end, may appear both with or without that letter. (24) וחיתו ארץ, the construction is similar to Psalms 104,8 למעינו מים, or to Numbers 24,3 בנו בעור, the letter ו at the end of the word וחיתו is an addition.,ויהי כן, the result of G’d’s directive continued in force for all times. (26) ויאמר, G’d addressed His angels.,נעשה אדם, these words have to be understood as in Kings I 22,19-22. In these verses the prophet Jeremiah depicts a conversation in the celestial regions between G’d and His angels and they discuss how to trap Achav through a deliberately false message by the false prophet Michayu, into bringing about his own destruction as retribution for his judicial murder of Navot the Yezreelite. We find similar references to G’d “consulting” in Isaiah 6,8 as well as in Job 1,6 where G’d is described as giving Satan leeway in his treatment of Job בצלמנו, in the image of the angels. [It could not refer to G’d seeing that no one had ever seen something that could be described as an “image” of G’d, the totally spiritual Being. Ed.],כדמותנו, similar to us (angels) in our intellectual faculties. This is borne out by the fact that when man’s spiritual decline is described in Psalms 49,3 his intelligence at that time is compared to a בהמה, a domesticated mammal.,וירדו, the root of the word is רדה to exercise authority, dominion. The construction is similar to that of ויבכו, derived from בכה, and ויעש, derived from עשה, the last root letter being dropped in all of these examples. (27) בצלמו, in the image of man. בצלם אלוקים, in the image of angels. Do not be surprised if the creation of the angels has not been referred to in detail in the whole report of creation. Moses did not set himself the task of describing either the details of the heavens or hell, and their creation. Neither did he indulge in describing what is known as מעשה מרכבה, the structure of G’d’s entourage, some of which has been transmitted to us by the prophets Ezekiel and Isaiah, respectively. All that is included in the report of creation that Moses recorded here is the visible universe, that which is subject to perception by our senses, as we explained on verse 1.,זכר ונקבה ברא אותם, as the Torah will proceed to explain in detail in chapter 2,21 “He took one of Adam’s sides and fashioned Chavah from it.” We are simply faced here with the report of a generalisation first, followed by greater detail This is also what is described as one of the 32 methods by which Torah can be explained in the treatise of Rabbi Eliezer son of Rabbi Yossi hagalili, who explained this verse in this fashion. (28) וכבשוה, the letter כ is “weak,” (without the dot inside) as in Numbers 32,29 ונכבשה הארץ לפניכם, “and the land will have been conquered before you.” The reason why there is no such dot is because it is in the imperative mode. On the other hand, if the letter כ here would have had the dagesh,” the construction of the verb would have been in the past tense, not an imperative. (29) הנה נתתי לכם, “I am now giving you.” This is an example of a past construction really meaning the present tense. We find examples of this in Genesis 14,22 when Avraham says הרימותי ידי, literally “I have raised my hand,” but meaning: “I am raising my hand, swearing an oath.. We find another example of this in Genesis 23,13 where Avraham refers to the payment to Efron for the cave of Machpelah, saying נתתי כסף השדה, literally “I have given the money for the field.” This could not be a past tense, as he had not known the price charged until this very moment. (30) ולכל חית הארץ, however, meat would not be permitted as food for man until Noach, when G’d specifically told him (Genesis 9,2) that meat henceforth would serve him as food just as up until then when G’d had allocated a vegetarian diet for man. (31) וירא אלוקים את כל אשר עשה והנה טוב מאד, G’d reviewed all that He had done during these six “days,” to see if anything needed adjustments or improvement, but He found that everything was very good. ,“and G-d saw everything that He had made and behold, it was very good” – He looked carefully at all of His work and all of His actions which He had done [to see] if there was anything in them which needed perfecting, and behold, all were beautiful and perfected. (3) ויברך אלוקים את יום השביעי , when the seventh day arrived, G’d had already created and placed in position all the needs of His creatures, including their food supply, so that it turned out that the Sabbath day was blessed with everything good. (compare author’s comment on Exodus 20,10) [I assume that this comment is based on the fact that if G’d had not created anything on that day, and especially, seeing the comment is written completely out of context, it must have referred to something which had occurred previously. Ed.]

(1) In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth. The opening verse takes the existence of God as a given. It does not address questions about God’s origin or nature; rather, God is understood to be the absolute existence from which everything begins. Already at the beginning of the account of Creation, heaven and earth appear as distinct entities and as a framework for all of creation, as detailed in the rest of the chapter. (2) The earth was unformed and empty [ tohu vavohu ]. The earth was completely lacking any structure or order. The heavens too were unformed and empty, but the verse initially focuses on the earth, its structure and content. Although these two terms appear together in other places in the Bible, the precise meaning of the word vohu is difficult to ascertain; it is even uncertain whether vohu refers to a distinct concept. And darkness was upon the face of the deep. The deep may refer to deep waters, or to the unstructured universe, that existed at the time. At this early stage of Creation, nothing had yet to receive definite shape; nothing had been revealed. Therefore, the darkness upon the face of the deep was merely the absence of the light that was about to be created. Some commentaries maintain that the darkness was not the absence of light, but an entity in itself, based on the verse “I form the light, and create darkness.” And the spirit of God hovered over the surface of the water. Water is the first actual substance mentioned in the Torah, as the heaven and the earth are not substances but general entities or zones. The verse does not discuss the creation of the primeval substance that served as the foundation for all of existence. In any case, the Torah indicates that God’s power, or will, exists in some form in this reality. God is not located within these entities, and He certainly is not to be identified with them; rather, He hovers close by while remaining separate from them. (3) The process of Creation begins: God said: Let there be light, and there was light. It is difficult to understand the meaning or significance of the phrase “God said.” The most that can be understood from this cryptic description is that God transmitted a kind of message that there should be light, and His instruction came to pass. Light was the first creation to emerge from tohu vavohu . It was unlike any form of light known to mankind; it did not emanate from a prior source. Perhaps it was not even a physical light, but a unique phenomenon. (4) God saw the light that it was good. As soon as the light emerged from the unformed universe, God evaluated it and distinguished between good and bad. And God divided between the light and the darkness. Once light was created and discerned as good, the next phase of its creation began, namely, the stage of separation, which established the light as a clearly defined entity. The act of discerning and separating between good and bad would continue till the end of time and manifest itself also in human history and civilization. (5) God called the light day. From the inception of the concepts of light and day, there was some measure of synonymy between them. Nevertheless, they are clearly and independently defined. Aside from day’s association with daylight, the day denotes a specific period of time. At this early stage of the Creation, with the formation of light comes the establishment of time. Until this point, the universe was in a raw state, completely unstructured and undefined; even space and time were not yet defined. These concepts came into being when God willed it. And to the darkness He called night. Darkness as well is removed from its previous status as a description of space alone and placed in a framework of time. The concepts of day and night as they appear in this verse express what the Sages called the order of time, in other words, the notions of before and after, relative concepts that did not apply when the earth was still unformed and empty. The verse introduces additional new concepts: It was evening and it was morning, one day. The essence of time is comprised of evening, which is related to darkness and night, and morning, which is related to light and day. After the passage of evening and morning, one day comes to an end. Therefore, the term “day,” which previously referred specifically to the hours of light and was even identified with light, now receives an additional meaning: A unit of time that includes both the hours of light and darkness. The verse refers to this first day of Creation as “one day” instead of the first day, as the day itself is a distinct entity. In other words, the existence of one day did not indicate the existence of a second. The acts of creation that followed occurred spontaneously. Consequently, the next day may be considered the second day only in the sense that there was already one day preceding it; its existence did not derive from the existence of the first day. The creation of light, therefore, was unique, as its appearance allowed for the basic arrangement of space and time. (6) God said: Let there be a firmament in the midst of the water. This was not a geographical division, but a metaphysical one. And let it divide between water and water. The breaking up of the all-encompassing primordial waters was vital to the continuation of Creation. These waters would be confined and transformed into two separate entities, with the firmament separating them from one another. (7) God made the firmament and divided between the water that was under the firmament and the water that was above the firmament; and it was so. This division served to separate between the material and spiritual planes. From this point forward, physical matter and spirit became distinguishable from one another. They would now exist separately, in some ways interconnected but essentially independent from one another. (8) God called the firmament heavens [ shamayim ]. Some expound the word shamayim as sham mayim , meaning “water is there.” However, it is more likely that shamayim is the double form of sham , there there, meaning that it is located beyond. The second day of Creation also brought with it an element of measurement not with regard to space but with regard to time: It was evening and it was morning, a second day. On this day, the universe achieved a new structure. Although it did not yet resemble the universe as we know it, it now contained a hierarchical structure in addition to light. (9) God said: Let the water under the heavens be gathered. This refers to the physical water under the firmament, similar to the water of today. The lower waters were called upon to be gathered to one place, and let the dry land appear. When the water was collected in one place, the dry land underneath would be exposed. And it was so. (10) God called the dry land earth. It should not be inferred from these verses that the dry land already existed as a distinct entity, albeit under water. Rather, it seems more likely that just as the light burst forth from within the darkness, so too the dry land was initially incorporated within the water, as it were. Only on the third day did the land dry, consolidate, and become a separate entity that would now be called earth. And the gathering of the waters He called seas. The place in which the waters gathered would become a distinct entity. This includes not only actual seas, but also discrete bodies of water, such as lakes of any size. Even the basin in the Temple, which King Solomon fashioned so the priests could wash their hands and feet, is known as a sea. From this point forward, the earth and the sea would be the two largest entities in the world. And God saw that it was good. Unlike the mystifying creation of the first day, or the traumatic separation of the second, the creations of the third day were already the beginnings of the fully formed universe. The earth and the seas were given their own space and unique characteristics that would enable the flourishing of those creatures that would inhabit each of them respectively. The existence of the earth and the seas was possible only because they had been separated from each other. This combination of dry land and water, and their subsequent division, was seen by God as good. (11) From an outsider’s perspective, the exposure of dry land, with its tall mountains, plains, and ravines, would have seemed a most dramatic event. However, on the very same day there was another creation, even more significant for humanity: God said: Let the earth sprout grasses. The earth was commanded to bring forth various types of vegetation. If until now the Torah dealt with metaphysics and physics, the third day introduced the concept of biology. The novelty of this creation was not in the actual growth or spread of the grass; such processes occur even in a puddle of water or a mound of earth. Rather, the sprouting of the grass was unique in that it contained within it a novelty known in classical philosophy as the vegetative soul. The grass was the basis for all higher life forms that would be created later, not only because the latter depend upon vegetation in order to survive, but because they are themselves more advanced forms of things that grow. The creation of biology includes not only growth but also proliferation: Vegetation yielding seed, and fruit tree bearing fruit in its kind, in which there is its seed, upon the earth. The definition of the biological system according to a process in which a cell or group of cells start to grow, and indeed to propagate, is not new. Although this phenomenon of growth and reproduction runs counter to all considerations of physics, as it violates the laws of entropy, it is nevertheless the very definition of life. And it was so. (12) The earth produced grasses, vegetation yielding seed in its kind, and a tree bearing fruit in which there was its seed in its kind. The Torah does not classify the various species of vegetation; it does not even provide the criteria for categorizing them. The verse instead emphasizes that each of these creations was a species to itself; the creation of plant life was a deliberate, ordered process. And God saw that it was good. In addition to being the day on which the dry land was exposed, the third day was the day on which life was first brought forth. The significance of the emergence of life on the third day is expressed in the double appearance of the phrase “it was good” (see verse 10). Before the third day, the universe consisted only of inanimate entities; on the third day life began, even if it was not yet intelligent. Although vegetation does not share all the characteristics of more complex life forms, it possesses the foundation and source of life, namely, the ability to tend to its own survival, to grow, and to multiply. (13) It was evening and it was morning, a third day. (14) God said: Let there be lights in the firmament of the heavens. From this point objects would exist that would generate and emit light. These were distinct from light itself, which was created on the first day. The addition on the fourth day of entities responsible for the light was part of the continued structuring and ordering of the universe. These lights would exist to distinguish between the day and the night. The division between day and night was significant not only from a celestial perspective, but also in establishing the rhythm of time. The function of the lights is first and foremost to measure time and divide it into segments. Specifically, let them be for signs, phenomena which occur in heaven and on earth, and for seasons, and for days and years. (15) Let them be for lights in the firmament of the heavens to give light upon the earth; and it was so. (16) God made the two great lights, as they appear today: the greater light, the sun, to rule the day, and the lesser light, the moon, to rule the night, and the stars. (17) God set them in the firmament of the heavens to give light upon the earth (18) and to rule during the day and during the night. The sun and moon appear to human beings as rulers over day and night, as it is impossible for one to fail to notice the presence of the sun or its absence, and it is likewise impossible to miss the appearance or disappearance of the moon. And these lights also serve to divide between the light and the darkness. Although earlier verses already referred to day and night, and to morning and evening, and connected them to light and darkness, these entities were not completely defined until now. And God saw that it was good. (19) It was evening and it was morning, a fourth day. (20) From vegetation and the heavenly bodies, the verse addresses the creation of animals: God said: Let the water swarm with swarms [ sheretz ] of living creatures [ nefesh ĥaya ]. These creatures would not grow and develop blindly, like vegetation, but would have the ability to move and some measure of will. The word sheretz may allude to wanting, retziya , or running, ritza . Note that the first appearance of the phrase nefesh ĥaya is in connection with aquatic creatures; it appears again only later with regard to land animals. Perhaps this is because water is the first source for creation and for the continued existence of life. And let birds fly above the earth on the face of the firmament of the heavens. (21) God created the great serpents [ taninim ]. In several places in the Bible, the tanin is identified with the livyatan or some creature resembling it. In modern Hebrew, livyatan refers to a whale while tanin refers to an alligator, but these are not their biblical meanings. Rather, the tanin and livyatan are mysterious aquatic creatures that were created in the water and whose relationship to our world is unclear. In several places in the Bible they are depicted as enormously powerful monsters, which at times do not accept the authority even of God. And every living creature that crawls, with which the water swarmed in their kinds. The variety of living creatures ranges from tiny fish that fill rivers, lakes, and streams to powerful sharks, and even to the great sea monsters, whose existence borders on the abstract and which may possess some form of intelligence. And every winged bird in its kind, a myriad of species. And God saw that it was good. (22) God blessed them, saying: Be fruitful, and multiply, and fill the water in the seas, and let birds multiply on the earth. Vegetation propagates automatically; it does not require action on its own part to multiply. By contrast, the reproductive processes of animals, whether flying, aquatic, or amphibious, involve the search for a mate. Consequently, they required a special blessing that would instill within them the active drive to be fruitful and multiply. (23) It was evening and it was morning, a fifth day. (24) Up to this point, God had created aquatic creatures and birds, the latter being either more advanced forms of sea life or creatures formed from swamps, a combination of land and sea. On the sixth day, God created land creatures: God said: Let the earth produce living creatures in its kind, animals of many types, not just domesticated ones, and crawling creatures. This is not meant as a zoological definition, but as a description of animal life from a human perspective. That is to say, the term “crawling creatures” refers to the small animals that swarm on the ground, such as mice and snakes. And let the earth produce beasts of the earth in its kind. The Torah distinguishes between animals [ behema ] and beasts [ ĥaya ]. Some suggest that ĥaya refers to predatory animals, whereas behema refers to herbivores. And it was so. (25) God made the beasts of the earth in its kind, and the animals in its kind, and every creature that crawls upon the ground in its kind; and God saw that it was good. (26) This verse is the climax of the entire account of Creation: God said: Let Us make Man in Our image, in Our likeness. Although in a physiological sense man is very similar to other living creatures, he is nevertheless a category of being to himself. Unlike other creations, man was fashioned in the image of God, not in terms of his appearance, but in terms of his essence. Aside from man’s superior intelligence, this likeness is expressed principally in man’s freedom to choose. This quality is unique to man and God. The rest of creation moves within its respective circles, always subject to a long chain of cause and effect. Humans are not bound by these chains. And let them dominate over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the heavens, and over the animals, and over all the earth, meaning over the inanimate substances, and over every crawling creature that crawls upon the earth. (27) God created man in His own image, granting him freedom and the capacity to expand and alter his surroundings; in the image of God He created him. The verse notes: Male and female He created them. The Torah will later elaborate on this statement. In theory, man could have been created as one, just as God is one. The fact that man was created male and female indicates that mankind is part of the world’s system of living creatures. The Torah’s emphasis on this fact indicates that it does not refer to man as an individual, but as a species, whose beginnings are described in this verse. On the other hand, although the other creatures were also created male and female, the Torah mentions the creation of male and female counterparts only with regard to mankind. This serves to emphasize that the difference between man and woman is not merely biological, but fundamental as well. (28) God blessed them; and God also said to them: Be fruitful, and multiply. Since the propagation of mankind, unlike that of plants, requires a conscious reproductive act, this was the first command addressed to man as a subject with free will. The second commandment is: And fill the earth. It is not enough for man to be fruitful and multiply. He must also spread out across the entire planet, settle it, and subdue it. Of course this does not negate the presence of other creatures on the earth. Nevertheless, man has a special obligation to populate the world, to cultivate and tame it. And finally, you must rule over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the heavens, and over every living creature that crawls upon the earth. (29) God said: Behold, I have given you, for now at least, all vegetation yielding seed that is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree, in which there is the fruit of a tree yielding seed; to you it shall be for food. You may take your sustenance from all types of plants, herbs, vegetables, and fruit, as you see fit. (30) And to every beast of the earth, and to every bird of the heavens, and to everything that crawls upon the earth, in which there is a living soul, I have given all green vegetation for food. And it was so. It is possible that when all life forms were first created, they were herbivorous. However, perhaps there was no prohibition against receiving sustenance from living creatures or their carcasses, only against killing living creatures. It is permitted for man and beast to derive their sustenance from vegetation, because they each possess an animate soul, making them superior to plants. (31) God saw everything that He had made, in its entirety, from light to man, and, behold, it was very good. It was evening and it was morning, the sixth day. (1) The heavens and the earth and their entire host, the abundance of creatures contained within them, with all their abilities and roles, were completed. (2) God completed on the seventh day His works that He had made on the previous six days; He rested on the seventh day from all His works that He had made. Concluded is the process in which new, unique creations were formed on each day. From this point forward, the world will continue its existence according to the order that has been determined for it. (3) Due to the unique nature of the Sabbath, God blessed the seventh day and sanctified it with additional holiness; because on it He rested from all His works that God created to make.

(1) In the beginning Elohim created the heavens and the earth. (2) The earth was unformed and desolate, and (there was) darkness [was spread] over the surface of the abyss. The breath of [from before] Elohim hovered [blew] above the surface of the water. (3) Elohim said, Let there be light. and there was light. (4) Elohim saw that the light was good, and Elohim divided the light from the darkness. (5) Elohim called the light day, and the darkness He called night. It became evening and it became morning, one day. (6) Elohim said, Let there be a canopy in the midst [middle] of the waters, and let it divide between waters and waters. (7) Elohim made the canopy, and divided the waters which were beneath the canopy, from the waters which were above the canopy, and it was so. (8) Elohim called the canopy heaven. It became evening and it became morning the second day. (9) Elohim said, Let the waters beneath the heavens be gathered into one place, and let the dryness be seen. It was so. (10) Elohim called the dryness, earth, and the gathering of the waters, He called seas, and Elohim saw that it was good. (11) Elohim said, Let the earth sprout grass, seed-yielding herbs, fruit trees bearing fruit of its own kind, with its seed within it, upon the earth. And it was so. (12) The earth brought forth grass, herbs yielding seed of its kind, and trees bearing fruit which has in it seeds of its kind; and Elohim saw that it was good. (13) It became evening and it became morning, the third day. (14) Elohim said, Let there be lights in the canopy of heaven to divide between the day and the night, and they will serve for signs for seasons, [and to count] (for) days and (for) years [with them]. (15) They will be for lights in the canopy of heaven to illuminate the earth. And it was so. (16) Elohim made the two great lights, the large light to rule the day, and the small light to rule the night, and the stars (17) Elohim set them in the canopy of the heaven to illuminate the earth, (18) to rule in the day and the night, and to divide between the light and the darkness; and Elohim saw that it was good. (19) It became evening and it became morning, the fourth day. (20) Elohim said, Let the waters teem with swarms of living creatures, and let birds fly above the earth, in the open canopy of the heaven. (21) And thus Elohim created the great whales, and every living creature that creeps, with which the waters teem, of its kind, and every winged bird of its kind; and Elohim saw that it was good. (22) Elohim blessed them saying, Be fruitful and multiply, fill the waters of the seas, and let the birds multiply on the earth. (23) It became evening and it became morning, the fifth day. (24) Elohim said, Let the earth bring forth living creatures, each of its kind, animals [of pasture], creeping things, and beasts of the earth, each to its kind. And it was so. (25) And thus Elohim made the beasts of the earth, each of its kind, the animals [of pasture] each of its kind, and everything that creeps on the ground, each of its kind, and Elohim saw that it was good. (26) Elohim said, Let us make man in our image, as our likeness, and let him dominate the fish of the sea, the birds of the heaven, the animals, all the earth, and every creeping thing that creeps on the earth. (27) And thus Elohim created man in his image. In the form of Elohim, He created him, male and female, He created them. (28) Elohim blessed them, and Elohim said to them, Be fruitful and multiply, fill the earth and subdue it, and dominate the fish of the sea, the birds of the heaven, and every living thing that moves upon the earth. (29) Elohim said, Behold, I have given you all seed-yielding herbs that are on the surface of the earth, and every tree that has seed-yielding fruit; to you it shall be for food. (30) And for every animal of the earth, for every bird of the heaven, and for everything that creeps on the ground, in which there is a living spirit, all vegetational herbs shall be [their] food. And it was so. (31) Elohim saw all that He had made, and behold it was very good [completely prepared]. It became evening and it became morning, the sixth day. (1) The heavens and the earth were completed, and [so were] all their conglomerations. (2) Elohim completed by the seventh day His work which He had made, and He abstained on the seventh day from all His work which He had made. (3) Elohim blessed the seventh day and sanctified it, for on it He abstained from all His work, which Elohim had created to do.

(1) At the beginning (min avella) the Lord created the heavens and the earth. (2) And the earth was vacancy and desolation, solitary of the sons of men, and void of every animal; and darkness was upon the face of the abyss, and the Spirit of mercies from before the Lord breathed upon the face of the waters. (3) And the Lord said, Let there be light and to enlighten above; and at once there was light. (4) And the Lord beheld the light, that it was good; and the Lord divided between the light and the darkness. (5) And the Lord called the light Day; and He made it that the inhabiters of the world might labour by it: and the darkness called He night; and He made it that in it the creatures might have rest. And it was evening, and it was morning, the First Day. (6) And the Lord said, Let there be an expanse in the midst of the waters, and let it separate between the waters above and the waters beneath. (7) And the Lord made the expanse, upbearing it with three fingers, between the confines of the heavens and the waters of the ocean, and separated between the waters which were below the expanse, and the waters which were above, in the collection (or covering) of the expanse; and it was so. (8) And the Lord called the expanse the Heavens. And it was evening, and it was morning, the Second Day. (9) And the Lord said, Let the lower waters which remain under the heavens be gathered together into one place, and the earth be dried, that the land may be visible. And it was so. (10) And the Lord called the dry (land) the Earth, and the place of the assemblage of waters called He the Seas; and the Lord saw that it was good. (11) And the Lord said, Let the earth increase the grassy herb whose seed seedeth, and the fruit-tree making fruit after its kind, whose seed is in itself upon the earth. And it was so. (12) And the earth produced grasses (and) herbage whose seed seedeth, and the tree making fruit after its kind. And the Lord saw that it was good. (13) And it was evening, and it was morning, the Third Day. (14) And the Lord said, Let there be lights in the expanse of the heavens, to distinguish between the day and the night; and let them be for signs and for festival times, and for the numbering by them the account of days, and for the sanctifying of the beginning of months, and the beginning of years, the passing away of months, and the passing away of years, the revolutions of the sun, the birth of the moon, and the revolvings (of seasons). (15) And let them be for luminaries in the expanse of the heavens to give light upon the earth. And it was so. (16) And the Lord made two great luminaries; and they were equal in glory twenty and one years, less six hundred and two and seventy parts of an hour. And afterwards the moon recited against the sun a false report; and she was diminished, and the sun was appointed to be the greater light to rule the day; and the moon to be the inferior light to rule in the night, and the stars. (17) And the Lord ordained them unto their offices, in the expanse of the heavens, to give forth light upon the earth, (18) and to minister by day and by night, to distinguish between the light of the day and the darkness of the night. And the Lord beheld that it was good. (19) And it was evening, and it was morning, Day the Fourth. (20) And the Lord said, Let the lakes of the waters swarm forth the reptile, the living animal, and the fowl which flieth, whose nest is upon the earth; and let the way of the bird be upon the air of the expanse of the heavens. (21) And the Lord created the great tanins, the lev-ya-than and his yoke-fellow which are prepared for the day of consolation, and every living animal which creepeth, and which the clear waters had swarmed forth after their kind; the kinds which are clean, and the kinds which are not clean; and every fowl which flieth with wings after their kinds, the clean and the unclean. And the Lord beheld that it was good. (22) And He blessed them, saying, Increase and multiply, and fill the waters of the seas, and let the fowl multiply upon the earth. (23) And it was evening, and it was morning, Day the Fifth. (24) And the Lord said, Let the soil of the earth bring forth the living creature according to his kind; the kind that is clean and the kind that is unclean; cattle, and creeping thing, and the creature of the earth, according to his kind. And it was so. (25) And the Lord made the beast of the earth after his kind, the clean and the unclean, and cattle after their kind, and every reptile of the earth after its kind, the clean and the unclean. And the Lord saw that it was good. (26) And the Lord said to the angels who ministered before Him, who had been created in the second day of the creation of the world, Let us make man in Our image, in Our likeness; and let them rule over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl which are in the atmosphere of heaven, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every reptile creeping upon the earth. (27) And the Lord created man in His Likeness: In the image of the Lord He created him, with two hundred and forty and eight members, with three hundred and sixty and five nerves, and overlaid them with skin, and filled it with flesh and blood. Male and female in their bodies He created them. (28) And He blessed them, and the Lord said to them, Increase and multiply, and fill the earth with sons and daughters, and prevail over it, in its possessions; and have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the fowl of the heavens, and over every creeping animal that creepeth upon the earth. (29) And the Lord said, Behold, I have given you every herb whose seed seedeth upon the face of all the earth, and every unfruitful tree for the need of building and for burning; and the tree in which is fruit seeding after its kind, to you it shall be for food. (30) But to every beast of the earth, and to every fowl of the heavens, and to every reptile upon the earth in which is the living soul, (I have given) all green herbs. And it was so. (31) And the Lord beheld every thing He had made, and it was very good. And it was evening, and it was morning, the Sixth Day. (1) And the creatures of the heavens and earth, and all the hosts of them, were completed. (2) And the Lord had finished by the Seventh Day the work which He had wrought, and the ten formations which He had created between the suns; and He rested the Seventh Day from all His works which He had performed. (3) And the Lord blessed the Seventh Day more than all the days of the week, and sanctified it, because in it He rested from all His works which the Lord had created and had willed to make.