Parshat Beshalach: The Song of the Sea in Context

[This hymn] has attracted the attention of modern scholars. Its style, vocabulary, morphology, and orthography all indicate that it is in a very old form of Hebrew. For example, scholars have stablished that none of the Semitic languages originally had a definite article (corresponding to "the" in English). Like Russian today or classical Latin, ancient Semitic tongues simply did without one for a while; later, however, most developed some way of indicating definiteness, the prefix ha- in Hebrew or al- in Arabic, the suffixes -a' or -ta' in Aramaic, and so forth. In most parts of the Bible, the prefix ha- is found in abundance; in this song, however, it is not found even once. That - along with a host of apparently ancient morphological and lexical features - would indicate to modern scholars that it has been preserved from a very early stage of the Hebrew language and thus may be one of the oldest parts of the Bible.
James L. Kugel, How to Read the Bible, p. 227

שמות ט״ו:א׳-ז׳

(א) אָ֣ז יָשִֽׁיר־מֹשֶׁה֩ וּבְנֵ֨י יִשְׂרָאֵ֜ל אֶת־הַשִּׁירָ֤ה הַזֹּאת֙ לַֽה' וַיֹּאמְר֖וּ לֵאמֹ֑ר אָשִׁ֤ירָה לַֽה' כִּֽי־גָאֹ֣ה גָּאָ֔ה ס֥וּס וְרֹכְב֖וֹ רָמָ֥ה בַיָּֽם׃ (ב) עׇזִּ֤י וְזִמְרָת֙ יָ֔הּ וַֽיְהִי־לִ֖י לִֽישׁוּעָ֑ה זֶ֤ה אֵלִי֙ וְאַנְוֵ֔הוּ אֱלֹקֵ֥י אָבִ֖י וַאֲרֹמְמֶֽנְהוּ׃ (ג) ה' אִ֣ישׁ מִלְחָמָ֑ה ה' שְׁמֽוֹ׃ (ד) מַרְכְּבֹ֥ת פַּרְעֹ֛ה וְחֵיל֖וֹ יָרָ֣ה בַיָּ֑ם וּמִבְחַ֥ר שָֽׁלִשָׁ֖יו טֻבְּע֥וּ בְיַם־סֽוּף׃ (ה) תְּהֹמֹ֖ת יְכַסְיֻ֑מוּ יָרְד֥וּ בִמְצוֹלֹ֖ת כְּמוֹ־אָֽבֶן׃ (ו) יְמִֽינְךָ֣ ה' נֶאְדָּרִ֖י בַּכֹּ֑חַ יְמִֽינְךָ֥ ה' תִּרְעַ֥ץ אוֹיֵֽב׃ (ז) וּבְרֹ֥ב גְּאוֹנְךָ֖ תַּהֲרֹ֣ס קָמֶ֑יךָ תְּשַׁלַּח֙ חֲרֹ֣נְךָ֔ יֹאכְלֵ֖מוֹ כַּקַּֽשׁ׃

Exodus 15:1-7

(1) Then sang Moshe and the Children of Israel
this song to YHWH,
uttered (this) utterance
I will sing to YHWH,
for he has triumphed, yes, triumphed,
the horse and its charioteer he flung into the sea!

(2) My fierce-might and strength is YAH,
he has become deliverance for me!
This is my God—I laud him,
the God of my father—I exalt him!

(3) YHWH is a man of war,
YHWH is his name!

(4) Pharaoh’s chariots and his army
he hurled into the sea,
his choicest teams-of-three
sank in the Sea of Reeds.

(5) Oceans covered them,
they went down in the depths
like a stone.

(6) Your right-hand, O YHWH,
majestic in power,
your right-hand, O YHWH,
shattered the enemy.

(7) In your great triumph
you smashed your foes,
sent forth your flaming-anger,
consumed them like chaff.

Questions

What patterns of biblical poetry do you observe?
What feelings does the text raise, either for you or for our Ancient Near Eastern predecessors?
In what ways do these verses seem to fit the narrative that preceded them? In what ways do they diverge?
If you existed in a time when this was the standard Hebrew and this text was the primary Exodus story, what would be your understanding of how the Israelites crossed the Sea of Reeds and the Egyptians drowned in it?

The Two Versions of Splitting the Sea
Red = Walls of Water, Blue = King Tide

שמות י״ד:ט״ו-ל׳

(טו) וַיֹּ֤אמֶר ה' אֶל־מֹשֶׁ֔ה מַה־תִּצְעַ֖ק אֵלָ֑י דַּבֵּ֥ר אֶל־בְּנֵי־יִשְׂרָאֵ֖ל וְיִסָּֽעוּ׃ (טז) וְאַתָּ֞ה הָרֵ֣ם אֶֽת־מַטְּךָ֗ וּנְטֵ֧ה אֶת־יָדְךָ֛ עַל־הַיָּ֖ם וּבְקָעֵ֑הוּ וְיָבֹ֧אוּ בְנֵֽי־יִשְׂרָאֵ֛ל בְּת֥וֹךְ הַיָּ֖ם בַּיַּבָּשָֽׁה׃ ...(כא) וַיֵּ֨ט מֹשֶׁ֣ה אֶת־יָדוֹ֮ עַל־הַיָּם֒ וַיּ֣וֹלֶךְ ה' ׀ אֶת־הַ֠יָּ֠ם בְּר֨וּחַ קָדִ֤ים עַזָּה֙ כׇּל־הַלַּ֔יְלָה וַיָּ֥שֶׂם אֶת־הַיָּ֖ם לֶחָרָבָ֑ה וַיִּבָּקְע֖וּ הַמָּֽיִם׃ (כב) וַיָּבֹ֧אוּ בְנֵֽי־יִשְׂרָאֵ֛ל בְּת֥וֹךְ הַיָּ֖ם בַּיַּבָּשָׁ֑ה וְהַמַּ֤יִם לָהֶם֙ חוֹמָ֔ה מִֽימִינָ֖ם וּמִשְּׂמֹאלָֽם׃ (כג) וַיִּרְדְּפ֤וּ מִצְרַ֙יִם֙ וַיָּבֹ֣אוּ אַחֲרֵיהֶ֔ם כֹּ֚ל ס֣וּס פַּרְעֹ֔ה רִכְבּ֖וֹ וּפָרָשָׁ֑יו אֶל־תּ֖וֹךְ הַיָּֽם׃ (כד) וַֽיְהִי֙ בְּאַשְׁמֹ֣רֶת הַבֹּ֔קֶר וַיַּשְׁקֵ֤ף ה' אֶל־מַחֲנֵ֣ה מִצְרַ֔יִם בְּעַמּ֥וּד אֵ֖שׁ וְעָנָ֑ן וַיָּ֕הׇם אֵ֖ת מַחֲנֵ֥ה מִצְרָֽיִם׃ (כה) וַיָּ֗סַר אֵ֚ת אֹפַ֣ן מַרְכְּבֹתָ֔יו וַֽיְנַהֲגֵ֖הוּ בִּכְבֵדֻ֑ת וַיֹּ֣אמֶר מִצְרַ֗יִם אָנ֙וּסָה֙ מִפְּנֵ֣י יִשְׂרָאֵ֔ל כִּ֣י ה' נִלְחָ֥ם לָהֶ֖ם בְּמִצְרָֽיִם׃ {פ}
(כו) וַיֹּ֤אמֶר ה' אֶל־מֹשֶׁ֔ה נְטֵ֥ה אֶת־יָדְךָ֖ עַל־הַיָּ֑ם וְיָשֻׁ֤בוּ הַמַּ֙יִם֙ עַל־מִצְרַ֔יִם עַל־רִכְבּ֖וֹ וְעַל־פָּרָשָֽׁיו׃ (כז) וַיֵּט֩ מֹשֶׁ֨ה אֶת־יָד֜וֹ עַל־הַיָּ֗ם וַיָּ֨שׇׁב הַיָּ֜ם לִפְנ֥וֹת בֹּ֙קֶר֙ לְאֵ֣יתָנ֔וֹ וּמִצְרַ֖יִם נָסִ֣ים לִקְרָאת֑וֹ וַיְנַעֵ֧ר ה' אֶת־מִצְרַ֖יִם בְּת֥וֹךְ הַיָּֽם׃ (כח) וַיָּשֻׁ֣בוּ הַמַּ֗יִם וַיְכַסּ֤וּ אֶת־הָרֶ֙כֶב֙ וְאֶת־הַפָּ֣רָשִׁ֔ים לְכֹל֙ חֵ֣יל פַּרְעֹ֔ה הַבָּאִ֥ים אַחֲרֵיהֶ֖ם בַּיָּ֑ם לֹֽא־נִשְׁאַ֥ר בָּהֶ֖ם עַד־אֶחָֽד׃ (כט) וּבְנֵ֧י יִשְׂרָאֵ֛ל הָלְכ֥וּ בַיַּבָּשָׁ֖ה בְּת֣וֹךְ הַיָּ֑ם וְהַמַּ֤יִם לָהֶם֙ חֹמָ֔ה מִֽימִינָ֖ם וּמִשְּׂמֹאלָֽם׃ (ל) וַיּ֨וֹשַׁע ה' בַּיּ֥וֹם הַה֛וּא אֶת־יִשְׂרָאֵ֖ל מִיַּ֣ד מִצְרָ֑יִם וַיַּ֤רְא יִשְׂרָאֵל֙ אֶת־מִצְרַ֔יִם מֵ֖ת עַל־שְׂפַ֥ת הַיָּֽם׃

Exodus 14:15-30

(15) Then ה' said to Moses, “Why do you cry out to Me? Tell the Israelites to go forward. (16) And you lift up your rod and hold out your arm over the sea and split it, so that the Israelites may march into the sea on dry ground...(21) Then Moses held out his arm over the sea and ה' drove back the sea with a strong east wind all that night, and turned the sea into dry ground. The waters were split, (22) and the Israelites went into the sea on dry ground, the waters forming a wall for them on their right and on their left. (23) The Egyptians came in pursuit after them into the sea, all of Pharaoh’s horses, chariots, and riders. (24) At the morning watch, ה' looked down upon the Egyptian army from a pillar of fire and cloud, and threw the Egyptian army into panic. (25) [God] locked the wheels of their chariots so that they moved forward with difficulty. And the Egyptians said, “Let us flee from the Israelites, for ה' is fighting for them against Egypt.” (26) Then ה' said to Moses, “Hold out your arm over the sea, that the waters may come back upon the Egyptians and upon their chariots and upon their riders.” (27) Moses held out his arm over the sea, and at daybreak the sea returned to its normal state, and the Egyptians fled at its approach. But ה' hurled the Egyptians into the sea. (28) The waters turned back and covered the chariots and the riders—Pharaoh’s entire army that followed them into the sea; not one of them remained. (29) But the Israelites had marched through the sea on dry ground, the waters forming a wall for them on their right and on their left. (30) Thus ה' delivered Israel that day from the Egyptians. Israel saw the Egyptians dead on the shore of the sea.

Two of W. F. Albright's students, Frank M. Cross and David N. Freedman, noticed an interesting thing about [the Song of the Sea]: it never mentions the sea being split apart. The closest it comes is [Exodus 15:6-7]. If you read these verses in the light of the surrounding narrative, they certainly appear to be talking about the same act of splitting the sea that is described in Exodus 14: "the waters piled up," "the floods stood up in a heap." However, Cross and Freedman argued, if you imagine for a minute that the account in Exodus 14 is actually a later text and then try to read this one on its own terms, no mention of the sea being divided or the Israelites walking on dry land will be found. Indeed, the passage just cited would seem instead to be talking about some great storm at sea...Far from being a description of what saved the Israelites and allowed them to cross the sea on dry land, Cross and Freedman observed, these words described what finished the Egyptians off. As a matter of fact, we are never really told in the song where the Israelites were when the Egyptians were drowned or how they got there.
James L. Kugel, How to Read the Bible, p. 227-228

יהושע כ״ד:ו׳-ז׳

(ו) וָאוֹצִ֤יא אֶת־אֲבֽוֹתֵיכֶם֙ מִמִּצְרַ֔יִם וַתָּבֹ֖אוּ הַיָּ֑מָּה וַיִּרְדְּפ֨וּ מִצְרַ֜יִם אַחֲרֵ֧י אֲבוֹתֵיכֶ֛ם בְּרֶ֥כֶב וּבְפָרָשִׁ֖ים יַם־סֽוּף׃ (ז) וַיִּצְעֲק֣וּ אֶל־ה' וַיָּ֨שֶׂם מַאֲפֵ֜ל בֵּינֵיכֶ֣ם ׀ וּבֵ֣ין הַמִּצְרִ֗ים וַיָּבֵ֨א עָלָ֤יו אֶת־הַיָּם֙ וַיְכַסֵּ֔הוּ וַתִּרְאֶ֙ינָה֙ עֵינֵיכֶ֔ם אֵ֥ת אֲשֶׁר־עָשִׂ֖יתִי בְּמִצְרָ֑יִם׃

Joshua 24:6-7

(6) I freed your ancestors—from Egypt, and you came to the Sea. But the Egyptians pursued your ancestors to the Sea of Reeds with chariots and riders. (7) They cried out to GOD, who put darkness between you and the Egyptians; then [God] brought the Sea upon them, and it covered them. Your own eyes saw what I did to the Egyptians.

In what other ways is the Song of the Sea out of sync with the narrative that surrounds it?

שמות ט״ו:י״ג-י״ח

(יג) נָחִ֥יתָ בְחַסְדְּךָ֖ עַם־ז֣וּ גָּאָ֑לְתָּ נֵהַ֥לְתָּ בְעׇזְּךָ֖ אֶל־נְוֵ֥ה קׇדְשֶֽׁךָ׃ (יד) שָֽׁמְע֥וּ עַמִּ֖ים יִרְגָּז֑וּן חִ֣יל אָחַ֔ז יֹשְׁבֵ֖י פְּלָֽשֶׁת׃ (טו) אָ֤ז נִבְהֲלוּ֙ אַלּוּפֵ֣י אֱד֔וֹם אֵילֵ֣י מוֹאָ֔ב יֹֽאחֲזֵ֖מוֹ רָ֑עַד נָמֹ֕גוּ כֹּ֖ל יֹשְׁבֵ֥י כְנָֽעַן׃ (טז) תִּפֹּ֨ל עֲלֵיהֶ֤ם אֵימָ֙תָה֙ וָפַ֔חַד בִּגְדֹ֥ל זְרוֹעֲךָ֖ יִדְּמ֣וּ כָּאָ֑בֶן עַד־יַעֲבֹ֤ר עַמְּךָ֙ יְהֹוָ֔ה עַֽד־יַעֲבֹ֖ר עַם־ז֥וּ קָנִֽיתָ׃ (יז) תְּבִאֵ֗מוֹ וְתִטָּעֵ֙מוֹ֙ בְּהַ֣ר נַחֲלָֽתְךָ֔ מָכ֧וֹן לְשִׁבְתְּךָ֛ פָּעַ֖לְתָּ יְהֹוָ֑ה מִקְּדָ֕שׁ אדושם כּוֹנְנ֥וּ יָדֶֽיךָ׃ (יח) ה' ׀ יִמְלֹ֖ךְ לְעֹלָ֥ם וָעֶֽד׃

Exodus 15:13-18

(13) In Your love You lead the people You redeemed;
In Your strength You guide them to Your holy abode.
(14) The peoples hear, they tremble;
Agony grips the dwellers in Philistia.
(15) Now are the clans of Edom dismayed;
The tribes of Moab—trembling grips them;
All the dwellers in Canaan are aghast.
(16) Terror and dread descend upon them;
Through the might of Your arm they are still as stone—
Till Your people cross over, ה',
Till Your people cross whom You have ransomed.
(17) You will bring them and plant them in Your own mountain,
The place You made to dwell in, ה',
The sanctuary, O my lord, which Your hands established.
(18) ה' will reign for ever and ever!

To modern scholars, the comparison of parallel prose (chapter 14) and poetic (chapter 15) accounts has suggested a more general conclusion about the prose narratives of the Pentateuch and other historical parts of the Bible. They were not (or not all of them) simply written down on the basis of vague, orally transmitted traditions. Instead, some were prose rewritings of an ancient cycle of songs, an anthology that may have been put together in David's time, perhaps even a lengthy poetic epic. This theory is difficult to assess, since it depends on a wholly unverifiable hypothesis, and one that is redolent of ideas about the priority of poetry to prose that are part of the baggage of German Romanticism of the nineteenth century. But it does have in its favor the evidence from ancient Israel's northern neighbor Ugarit, whose clay tablets preserve a large quantity of narrative material written in poetic style (and no historical narratives in prose). What is more, the Bible itself refers to various now-lost historical sources, including The Book of the Wars of the Lord (Numbers 21:14) and The Book of Yashar (2 Samuel 1:18) Perhaps, scholars say, these lost books contained hymns such as that of Exodus 15, hymns that had been assembled from here and there for the purpose of uniting the northern and southern parts of David's kingdom. After that kingdom split in two, the theory goes, this same national songbook served as the raw material for two different prose rewritings of early Israelite history, one in the north and the other in the south - namely, the collections of texts known as J and E.
James L. Kugel, How to Read the Bible, p. 231

Final Question: What national myths (Jewish or secular) do we extol as our collective heritage, even if we know they are not part of our genealogical history?