1. Why does the Qumran sect require three witnesses for a capital case, while Rabbinic law demands only two?
2. Why do they allow for the combination of individual testimony from separate cases?
16... כל דבר אשר ימעל
17 איש בתורה וראה רעיהו והוא אחד אם דבר מות הוא וידיעהו
18 לעיניו בהוכיח למבקר והמבקר יכתבהו בידו עד עשותו
19 עוד לפני אחד ושב והודיע למבקר אם ישוב וניתפש לפני
20 אחד שלם משפטו ואם שנים הם והם מעידים על
21 דבר אחד (/אחר?) והובדל מן הטהרה לבד אם נאמנים
22 הם וביום ראות האיש יודיעה למבקר ועל ההון יקבלו שני
23 עידים נאמנים ועל אחד להבדיל הטהרה
Damascus Document IX 17-22
[In] whatever manner a man may transgress against the Torah, and his neighbour, being [only] one person, witnesses [the act]: If it is a capital case, he [the witness] shall report it in his [the offender's] presence to the examiner, with reproving. The examiner shall record it by his own hand, until [such time as] he commit it again, in the presence of one [witness]. Again he [the witness] shall report [it] to the examiner. Now if he [the offender] should be apprehended yet again [a third time] in the presence of one [witness], his case is complete.
If, however, there are [only] two witnesses who testify concerning one [and the same] matter, the person may only be removed from the Purity, providing they are reliable [witnesses], and he [the witness] reported it to the examiner on the day on which he saw [it].
Concerning property [cases], let them accept two reliable witnesses, and [rely] on a single [witness] only as regards removal from the Purity.
(Translated by Lawrence Schiffmann)
(ו) עַל־פִּ֣י שְׁנַ֣יִם עֵדִ֗ים א֛וֹ שְׁלֹשָׁ֥ה עֵדִ֖ים יוּמַ֣ת הַמֵּ֑ת לֹ֣א יוּמַ֔ת עַל־פִּ֖י עֵ֥ד אֶחָֽד ׃
(6) A person shall be put to death only on the testimony of two witnesses or three witnesses; he must not be put to death on the testimony of a single witness.
Matthew 18
“If your brother or sister sins, go and point out their fault, just between the two of you. If they listen to you, you have won them over. But if they will not listen, take one or two others along, so that ‘every matter may be established by the testimony of two or three witnesses.’ If they still refuse to listen, tell it to the church; and if they refuse to listen even to the church, treat them as you would a pagan or a tax collector.
“Truly I tell you, whatever you bind on earth will bee bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven. Again, truly I tell you that if two of you on earth agree about anything they ask for, it will be done for them by my Father in heaven. For where two or three gather in my name, there am I with them.”
John 8
When Jesus spoke again to the people, he said, “I am the light of the world. Whoever follows me will never walk in darkness, but will have the light of life.”
The Pharisees challenged him, “Here you are, appearing as your own witness; your testimony is not valid.”
Jesus answered, “Even if I testify on my own behalf, my testimony is valid, for I know where I came from and where I am going. But you have no idea where I come from or where I am going. You judge by human standards; I pass judgement on no one. But if I do judge, my decisions are true, because I am not alone. I stand with the Father, who sent me. In your own Law it is written that the testimony of two witnesses is true. I am one who testifies for myself; my other witness is the Father, who sent me.”
Josephus, Antiquities XIII:8
She immediately sent letters to the rulers of the Israelites [Jezreelites] in Ahab's name, and commanded them to fast and to assemble a congregation, and to set Naboth at the head of them, because he was of an illustrious family, and to have three bold men ready to bear witness that he had blasphemed God and the king, and then to stone him, and slay him in that manner.
(8) So she wrote letters in Ahab’s name and sealed them with his seal, and sent the letters to the elders and the nobles who lived in the same town with Naboth. (9) In the letters she wrote as follows: “Proclaim a fast and seat Naboth at the front of the assembly. (10) And seat two scoundrels opposite him, and let them testify against him: ‘You have reviled God and king!’ Then take him out and stone him to death.”
Josephus, Antiquities 4.15
But let not a single witness be credited, but three, or two at the least, and those such whose testimony is confirmed by their good lives.
⟦ ⟧ כי
11Q19 64:7 יהיה איש רכיל בעמו ומשלים את עמו לגוי נכר ועושה רעה בעמו
11Q19 64:8 ותליתמה אותו על העץ וימת. על פי שנים עדים ועל פי שלושה עדים
11Q19 64:9 יומת והמה יתלו אותו העץ. ⟦ ⟧
Temple Scroll
If a man is a traitor against his people and gives them up to a foreign nation, so doing evil to his people, you are to hang him on a tree until dead. On the testimony of two or three witnesses he will be put to death, and they themselves shall hang him on the tree.
(ח) מה שנים נמצא אחד מהן קרוב או פסול עדותן בטלה, אף שלשה נמצא אחד מהן קרוב או פסול, עדותן בטלה. מנין אפלו מאה, תלמוד לומר עדים. אמר רבי יוסי, במה דברים אמורים, בדיני נפשות. אבל בדיני ממונות, תתקים העדות בשאר. רבי אומר, אחד דיני ממונות ואחד דיני נפשות.
(8) Just as if there were two [witnesses], and one was found to be a close relative or invalid, the entire testimony is invalidated, so too if there are three [witnesses] and one was found to be a close relative or invalid the entire testimony is invalidated. From where do we know [that this applies] even for one hundred [witnesses]? The verse states: "witnesses". Rabbi Yosse said: "What case are we talking about? In capital cases, however in monetary cases the testimony is upheld by the others." Rebbe said: "The law is the same for capital cases and monetary cases."
מתרין בו בפני שלשה ומלקין אותו. חזר וקלקל, נדון בעשרים ושלשה. ואינו נסקל עד שיהו שם שלשה הראשונים, שנאמר (דברים כא, כ) בננו זה, זהו שלקה בפניכם.
They warn him in front of three and lash him. If he repeats his misdeeds, he is judged by a court of twenty-three. And he is not stoned until the original three are present, as it says (Deuteronomy 21:20), "This our son," he who was lashed before you.
(ה) המגדף אינו חיב עד שיפרש את השם. אמר רבי יהושע בן קרחה, בכל יום דנין את העדים בכנוי, יכה יוסי את יוסי. נגמר הדין, לא היו הורגים בכנוי, אלא מוציאים את כל האדם לחוץ, ושואלים את הגדול שבהן ואומרים לו, אמר מה ששמעת בפרוש, והוא אומר, והדינים עומדין על רגליהן, וקורעין ולא מאחין. והשני אומר, אף אני כמוהו, והשלישי אומר, אף אני כמוהו.
(5) The blasphemer - [he] is not liable until he [explicitly] utters the name [of God]. Rabbi Yehoshua ben Korchah said, every day the witnesses testify using a substitute name [in place of the actual Divine Name uttered by the blasphemer]: "May Yossi smite Yossi." Once the verdict has been reached, they would not execute [the defendant] [on the basis of testimony] using a substitute name. Rather, [the judges] send everyone outside, and inquire of the greatest [witness] among them, saying to him: "State explicitly what you heard," and he states [the blasphemy verbatim]. And the judges stand upon their feet and tear [their clothing]. And they may not [ever] mend [the torn clothing]. And the second [witness] says, "I also [heard] like him," and the third [witness] says, "I also [heard] like him."
(ו) אין עדותן של העדים מתקיימת אא"כ ראו זה את זה ר' יהושע בן קרחה אומר אפי' זה שלא כנגד זה לעולם אין עדותן מתקיימת של עדים אא"כ היו שניהן כאחד ר"ש אומר שומעין דבריו של זה היום וכשיבוא שני למחר שומעין דבריו.
The testimony of witnesses is not valid unless the [two witnesses] saw each other (at the time). Rabbi Yehoshua ben Korcha said: even if it was not simultaneous. (?)
The testimony of witnesses is not valid unless they were both together. Rabbi Shimon said: [if] the testimony of one of them is heard today, the testimony of the second may be heard tomorrow.
אמנה דקא מסהיד האי כו' - זה אומר בפני הלוהו מנה וזה אומר בפני הלוהו מנה זה לא ראה של זה נמצא שאין כאן עדות שלם במנה אחד:
Rashi:
ולא ישמרנו האידנא - בנגיחה שלישית חייב עליה נזק שלם:
Josephus, Antiquities 4.15
But let not a single witness be credited, but three, or two at the least, and those such whose testimony is confirmed by their good lives.