I. Censuses in the Torah
(יא) וַיְדַבֵּר יי אֶל מֹשֶׁה לֵּאמֹר. (יב) כִּי תִשָּׂא אֶת רֹאשׁ בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל לִפְקֻדֵיהֶם וְנָתְנוּ אִישׁ כֹּפֶר נַפְשׁוֹ לַיי בִּפְקֹד אֹתָם וְלֹא יִהְיֶה בָהֶם נֶגֶף בִּפְקֹד אֹתָם. (יג) זֶה יִתְּנוּ כָּל הָעֹבֵר עַל הַפְּקֻדִים מַחֲצִית הַשֶּׁקֶל בְּשֶׁקֶל הַקֹּדֶשׁ עֶשְׂרִים גֵּרָה הַשֶּׁקֶל מַחֲצִית הַשֶּׁקֶל תְּרוּמָה לַיי. (יד) כֹּל הָעֹבֵר עַל הַפְּקֻדִים מִבֶּן עֶשְׂרִים שָׁנָה וָמָעְלָה יִתֵּן תְּרוּמַת יי. (טו) הֶעָשִׁיר לֹא יַרְבֶּה וְהַדַּל לֹא יַמְעִיט מִמַּחֲצִית הַשָּׁקֶל לָתֵת אֶת תְּרוּמַת יי לְכַפֵּר עַל נַפְשֹׁתֵיכֶם. (טז) וְלָקַחְתָּ אֶת כֶּסֶף הַכִּפֻּרִים מֵאֵת בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל וְנָתַתָּ אֹתוֹ עַל עֲבֹדַת אֹהֶל מוֹעֵד וְהָיָה לִבְנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל לְזִכָּרוֹן לִפְנֵי יי לְכַפֵּר עַל נַפְשֹׁתֵיכֶם.
(25) And the silver of them that were numbered of the congregation was a hundred talents, and a thousand seven hundred and three-score and fifteen shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary: (26) a beka a head, that is, half a shekel, after the shekel of the sanctuary, for every one that passed over to them that are numbered, from twenty years old and upward, for 603,550 men.
"ולא יהיה בהם נגף" - שהמניין, שולט בו עין הרע, והדֶבֶר בא עליהם, כמו שמצינו בימי דוד (ראה דברי הימים א כא יד):
"That there be no plague among them": For during a census, the Evil Eye presides, and plague comes to them, as was the case during the reign of David (I Chronicles 21:14).
(א) וַיְדַבֵּר יי אֶל מֹשֶׁה בְּמִדְבַּר סִינַי בְּאֹהֶל מוֹעֵד בְּאֶחָד לַחֹדֶשׁ הַשֵּׁנִי בַּשָּׁנָה הַשֵּׁנִית לְצֵאתָם מֵאֶרֶץ מִצְרַיִם לֵאמֹר. (ב) שְׂאוּ אֶת רֹאשׁ כָּל עֲדַת בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל לְמִשְׁפְּחֹתָם לְבֵית אֲבֹתָם בְּמִסְפַּר שֵׁמוֹת כָּל זָכָר לְגֻלְגְּלֹתָם. (ג) מִבֶּן עֶשְׂרִים שָׁנָה וָמַעְלָה כָּל יֹצֵא צָבָא בְּיִשְׂרָאֵל תִּפְקְדוּ אֹתָם לְצִבְאֹתָם אַתָּה וְאַהֲרֹן. (ד) וְאִתְּכֶם יִהְיוּ אִישׁ אִישׁ לַמַּטֶּה אִישׁ רֹאשׁ לְבֵית אֲבֹתָיו הוּא. ...
(מד) אֵלֶּה הַפְּקֻדִים אֲשֶׁר פָּקַד מֹשֶׁה וְאַהֲרֹן וּנְשִׂיאֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל שְׁנֵים עָשָׂר אִישׁ אִישׁ אֶחָד לְבֵית אֲבֹתָיו הָיוּ. (מה) וַיִּהְיוּ כָּל פְּקוּדֵי בְנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל לְבֵית אֲבֹתָם מִבֶּן עֶשְׂרִים שָׁנָה וָמַעְלָה כָּל יֹצֵא צָבָא בְּיִשְׂרָאֵל. (מו) וַיִּהְיוּ כָּל הַפְּקֻדִים שֵׁשׁ מֵאוֹת אֶלֶף וּשְׁלֹשֶׁת אֲלָפִים וַחֲמֵשׁ מֵאוֹת וַחֲמִשִּׁים. (מז) וְהַלְוִיִּם לְמַטֵּה אֲבֹתָם לֹא הָתְפָּקְדוּ בְּתוֹכָם.
(1) AND THE LORD spoke unto Moses in the wilderness of Sinai, in the tent of meeting, on the first day of the second month, in the second year after the were come out of the land of Egypt, saying: (2) ’Take ye the sum of all the congregation of the children of Israel, by their families, by their fathers’houses, according to the number of names, every male, by their polls; (3) from twenty years old and upward, all that are able to go forth to war in Israel: ye shall number them by their hosts, even thou and Aaron. (4) And with you there shall be a man of every tribe, every one head of his fathers’house. ...
(44) These are those that were numbered, which Moses and Aaron numbered, and the princes of Israel, being twelve men; they were each one for his fathers’house. (45) And all those that were numbered of the children of Israel by their fathers’houses, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war in Israel; (46) even all those that were numbered were 603,550. (47) But the Levites after the tribe of their fathers were not numbered among them.
(א) וַיְהִי אַחֲרֵי הַמַּגֵּפָה וַיֹּאמֶר יי אֶל מֹשֶׁה וְאֶל אֶלְעָזָר בֶּן אַהֲרֹן הַכֹּהֵן לֵאמֹר. (ב) שְׂאוּ אֶת רֹאשׁ כָּל עֲדַת בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל מִבֶּן עֶשְׂרִים שָׁנָה וָמַעְלָה לְבֵית אֲבֹתָם כָּל יֹצֵא צָבָא בְּיִשְׂרָאֵל. (ג) וַיְדַבֵּר מֹשֶׁה וְאֶלְעָזָר הַכֹּהֵן אֹתָם בְּעַרְבֹת מוֹאָב עַל יַרְדֵּן יְרֵחוֹ לֵאמֹר. (ד) מִבֶּן עֶשְׂרִים שָׁנָה וָמָעְלָה כַּאֲשֶׁר צִוָּה יי אֶת מֹשֶׁה וּבְנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל הַיֹּצְאִים מֵאֶרֶץ מִצְרָיִם. ...
(נא) אֵלֶּה פְּקוּדֵי בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל שֵׁשׁ מֵאוֹת אֶלֶף וָאָלֶף שְׁבַע מֵאוֹת וּשְׁלֹשִׁים. (נב) וַיְדַבֵּר יי אֶל מֹשֶׁה לֵּאמֹר. (נג) לָאֵלֶּה תֵּחָלֵק הָאָרֶץ בְּנַחֲלָה בְּמִסְפַּר שֵׁמוֹת. (נד) לָרַב תַּרְבֶּה נַחֲלָתוֹ וְלַמְעַט תַּמְעִיט נַחֲלָתוֹ אִישׁ לְפִי פְקֻדָיו יֻתַּן נַחֲלָתוֹ. (נה) אַךְ בְּגוֹרָל יֵחָלֵק אֶת הָאָרֶץ לִשְׁמוֹת מַטּוֹת אֲבֹתָם יִנְחָלוּ. (נו) עַל פִּי הַגּוֹרָל תֵּחָלֵק נַחֲלָתוֹ בֵּין רַב לִמְעָט. (נז) וְאֵלֶּה פְקוּדֵי הַלֵּוִי לְמִשְׁפְּחֹתָם לְגֵרְשׁוֹן מִשְׁפַּחַת הַגֵּרְשֻׁנִּי לִקְהָת מִשְׁפַּחַת הַקְּהָתִי לִמְרָרִי מִשְׁפַּחַת הַמְּרָרִי....
(1) And it came to pass after the plague, that the LORD spoke unto Moses and unto Eleazar the son of Aaron the priest, saying: (2) ’Take the sum of all the congregation of the children of Israel, from twenty years old and upward, by their fathers’houses, all that are able to go forth to war in Israel.’ (3) And Moses and Eleazar the priest spoke with them in the plains of Moab by the Jordan at Jericho, saying: (4) ’[Take the sum of the people,] from twenty years old and upward, as the LORD commanded Moses and the children of Israel, that came forth out of the land of Egypt.’ ...
(51) These are they that were numbered of the children of Israel, 601,730. (52) And the LORD spoke unto Moses, saying: (53) ’Unto these the land shall be divided for an inheritance according to the number of names. (54) To the more thou shalt give the more inheritance, and to the fewer thou shalt give the less inheritance; to each one according to those that were numbered of it shall its inheritance be given. (55) Notwithstanding the land shall be divided by lot; according to the names of the tribes of their fathers they shall inherit. (56) According to the lot shall their inheritance be divided between the more and the fewer.’ (57) And these are they that were numbered of the Levites after their families: of Gershon, the family of the Gershonites; of Kohath, the family of the Kohathites; of Merari, the family of the Merarites....
(9) And those that died by the plague were twenty and four thousand.
II. King David's census - two versions
(א) וַיֹּסֶף אַף יי לַחֲרוֹת בְּיִשְׂרָאֵל וַיָּסֶת אֶת דָּוִד בָּהֶם לֵאמֹר לֵךְ מְנֵה אֶת יִשְׂרָאֵל וְאֶת יְהוּדָה. (ב) וַיֹּאמֶר הַמֶּלֶךְ אֶל יוֹאָב שַׂר הַחַיִל אֲשֶׁר אִתּוֹ שׁוּט נָא בְּכָל שִׁבְטֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל מִדָּן וְעַד בְּאֵר שֶׁבַע וּפִקְדוּ אֶת הָעָם וְיָדַעְתִּי אֵת מִסְפַּר הָעָם. (ג) וַיֹּאמֶר יוֹאָב אֶל הַמֶּלֶךְ וְיוֹסֵף יי אֱלֹהֶיךָ אֶל הָעָם כָּהֵם וְכָהֵם מֵאָה פְעָמִים וְעֵינֵי אֲדֹנִי הַמֶּלֶךְ רֹאוֹת וַאדֹנִי הַמֶּלֶךְ לָמָּה חָפֵץ בַּדָּבָר הַזֶּה. (ד) וַיֶּחֱזַק דְּבַר הַמֶּלֶךְ אֶל יוֹאָב וְעַל שָׂרֵי הֶחָיִל וַיֵּצֵא יוֹאָב וְשָׂרֵי הַחַיִל לִפְנֵי הַמֶּלֶךְ לִפְקֹד אֶת הָעָם אֶת יִשְׂרָאֵל. (ה) וַיַּעַבְרוּ אֶת הַיַּרְדֵּן וַיַּחֲנוּ בַעֲרוֹעֵר יְמִין הָעִיר אֲשֶׁר בְּתוֹךְ הַנַּחַל הַגָּד וְאֶל יַעְזֵר. (ו) וַיָּבֹאוּ הַגִּלְעָדָה וְאֶל אֶרֶץ תַּחְתִּים חָדְשִׁי וַיָּבֹאוּ דָּנָה יַּעַן וְסָבִיב אֶל צִידוֹן. (ז) וַיָּבֹאוּ מִבְצַר צֹר וְכָל עָרֵי הַחִוִּי וְהַכְּנַעֲנִי וַיֵּצְאוּ אֶל נֶגֶב יְהוּדָה בְּאֵר שָׁבַע. (ח) וַיָּשֻׁטוּ בְּכָל הָאָרֶץ וַיָּבֹאוּ מִקְצֵה תִשְׁעָה חֳדָשִׁים וְעֶשְׂרִים יוֹם יְרוּשָׁלִָם. (ט) וַיִּתֵּן יוֹאָב אֶת מִסְפַּר מִפְקַד הָעָם אֶל הַמֶּלֶךְ וַתְּהִי יִשְׂרָאֵל שְׁמֹנֶה מֵאוֹת אֶלֶף אִישׁ חַיִל שֹׁלֵף חֶרֶב וְאִישׁ יְהוּדָה חֲמֵשׁ מֵאוֹת אֶלֶף אִישׁ. (י) וַיַּךְ לֵב דָּוִד אֹתוֹ אַחֲרֵי כֵן סָפַר אֶת הָעָם וַיֹּאמֶר דָּוִד אֶל יי חָטָאתִי מְאֹד אֲשֶׁר עָשִׂיתִי וְעַתָּה יי הַעֲבֶר נָא אֶת עֲוֹן עַבְדְּךָ כִּי נִסְכַּלְתִּי מְאֹד. (יא) וַיָּקָם דָּוִד בַּבֹּקֶר וּדְבַר יי הָיָה אֶל גָּד הַנָּבִיא חֹזֵה דָוִד לֵאמֹר. (יב) הָלוֹךְ וְדִבַּרְתָּ אֶל דָּוִד כֹּה אָמַר יי שָׁלֹשׁ אָנֹכִי נוֹטֵל עָלֶיךָ בְּחַר לְךָ אַחַת מֵהֶם וְאֶעֱשֶׂה לָּךְ. (יג) וַיָּבֹא גָד אֶל דָּוִד וַיַּגֶּד לוֹ וַיֹּאמֶר לוֹ הֲתָבוֹא לְךָ שֶׁבַע שָׁנִים רָעָב בְּאַרְצֶךָ אִם שְׁלֹשָׁה חֳדָשִׁים נֻסְךָ לִפְנֵי צָרֶיךָ וְהוּא רֹדְפֶךָ וְאִם הֱיוֹת שְׁלֹשֶׁת יָמִים דֶּבֶר בְּאַרְצֶךָ עַתָּה דַּע וּרְאֵה מָה אָשִׁיב שֹׁלְחִי דָּבָר. (יד) וַיֹּאמֶר דָּוִד אֶל גָּד צַר לִי מְאֹד נִפְּלָה נָּא בְיַד יי כִּי רַבִּים רחמו [רַחֲמָיו] וּבְיַד אָדָם אַל אֶפֹּלָה. (טו) וַיִּתֵּן יי דֶּבֶר בְּיִשְׂרָאֵל מֵהַבֹּקֶר וְעַד עֵת מוֹעֵד וַיָּמָת מִן הָעָם מִדָּן וְעַד בְּאֵר שֶׁבַע שִׁבְעִים אֶלֶף אִישׁ...
(1) And again the anger of the LORD was kindled against Israel, and He moved David against them, saying: ‘Go, number Israel and Judah.’ (2) And the king said to Joab the captain of the host that was with him: ‘Go now to and fro through all the tribes of Israel, from Dan even to Beer-sheba, and number ye the people, that I may know the sum of the people.’ (3) And Joab said unto the king: ‘Now the LORD thy God add unto the people, how many soever they may be, a hundredfold, and may the eyes of my lord the king see it; but why doth my lord the king delight in this thing?’ (4) Notwithstanding the king’s word prevailed against Joab, and against the captains of the host. And Joab and the captains of the host went out from the presence of the king, to number the people of Israel. (5) And they passed over the Jordan, and pitched in Aroer, on the right side of the city that is in the middle of the valley of Gad, and unto Jazer; (6) then they came to Gilead, and to the land of Tahtim-hodshi; and they came to Dan-jaan, and round about to Zidon, (7) and came to the stronghold of Tyre, and to all the cities of the Hivites, and of the Canaanites; and they went out to the south of Judah, at Beer-sheba. (8) So when they had gone to and fro through all the land, they came to Jerusalem at the end of nine months and twenty days. (9) And Joab gave up the sum of the numbering of the people unto the king; and there were in Israel 800,000 valiant men that drew the sword; and the men of Judah were 500,000 men. (10) And David’s heart smote him after that he had numbered the people. And David said unto the LORD: ‘I have sinned greatly in what I have done; but now, O LORD, put away, I beseech Thee, the iniquity of Thy servant; for I have done very foolishly.’ (11) And when David rose up in the morning, the word of the LORD came unto the prophet Gad, David’s seer, saying: (12) ’Go and speak unto David: Thus saith the LORD: I lay upon thee three things; choose thee one of them, that I may do it unto thee.’ (13) So Gad came to David, and told him, and said unto him: ‘Shall seven years of famine come unto thee in thy land? or wilt thou flee three months before thy foes while they pursue thee? or shall there be three days’pestilence in thy land? now advise thee, and consider what answer I shall return to Him that sent Me.’ (14) And David said unto Gad: ‘I am in a great strait; let us fall now into the hand of the LORD; for His mercies are great; and let me not fall into the hand of man.’ (15) So the LORD sent a pestilence upon Israel from the morning even to the time appointed; and there died of the people from Dan even to Beer-sheba seventy thousand men...
(א) וַיַּעֲמֹד שָׂטָן עַל יִשְׂרָאֵל וַיָּסֶת אֶת דָּוִיד לִמְנוֹת אֶת יִשְׂרָאֵל. (ב) וַיֹּאמֶר דָּוִיד אֶל יוֹאָב וְאֶל שָׂרֵי הָעָם לְכוּ סִפְרוּ אֶת יִשְׂרָאֵל מִבְּאֵר שֶׁבַע וְעַד דָּן וְהָבִיאוּ אֵלַי וְאֵדְעָה אֶת מִסְפָּרָם. (ג) וַיֹּאמֶר יוֹאָב יוֹסֵף יי עַל עַמּוֹ כָּהֵם מֵאָה פְעָמִים הֲלֹא אֲדֹנִי הַמֶּלֶךְ כֻּלָּם לַאדֹנִי לַעֲבָדִים לָמָּה יְבַקֵּשׁ זֹאת אֲדֹנִי לָמָּה יִהְיֶה לְאַשְׁמָה לְיִשְׂרָאֵל. (ד) וּדְבַר הַמֶּלֶךְ חָזַק עַל יוֹאָב וַיֵּצֵא יוֹאָב וַיִּתְהַלֵּךְ בְּכָל יִשְׂרָאֵל וַיָּבֹא יְרוּשָׁלִָם. (ה) וַיִּתֵּן יוֹאָב אֶת מִסְפַּר מִפְקַד הָעָם אֶל דָּוִיד וַיְהִי כָל יִשְׂרָאֵל אֶלֶף אֲלָפִים וּמֵאָה אֶלֶף אִישׁ שֹׁלֵף חֶרֶב וִיהוּדָה אַרְבַּע מֵאוֹת וְשִׁבְעִים אֶלֶף אִישׁ שֹׁלֵף חָרֶב. (ו) וְלֵוִי וּבִנְיָמִן לֹא פָקַד בְּתוֹכָם כִּי נִתְעַב דְּבַר הַמֶּלֶךְ אֶת יוֹאָב. (ז) וַיֵּרַע בְּעֵינֵי הָאֱלֹהִים עַל הַדָּבָר הַזֶּה וַיַּךְ אֶת יִשְׂרָאֵל. (ח) וַיֹּאמֶר דָּוִיד אֶל הָאֱלֹהִים חָטָאתִי מְאֹד אֲשֶׁר עָשִׂיתִי אֶת הַדָּבָר הַזֶּה וְעַתָּה הַעֲבֶר נָא אֶת עֲווֹן עַבְדְּךָ כִּי נִסְכַּלְתִּי מְאֹד. (ט) וַיְדַבֵּר יי אֶל גָּד חֹזֵה דָוִיד לֵאמֹר. (י) לֵךְ וְדִבַּרְתָּ אֶל דָּוִיד לֵאמֹר כֹּה אָמַר יי שָׁלוֹשׁ אֲנִי נֹטֶה עָלֶיךָ בְּחַר לְךָ אַחַת מֵהֵנָּה וְאֶעֱשֶׂה לָּךְ. (יא) וַיָּבֹא גָד אֶל דָּוִיד וַיֹּאמֶר לוֹ כֹּה אָמַר יי קַבֶּל לָךְ. (יב) אִם שָׁלוֹשׁ שָׁנִים רָעָב וְאִם שְׁלֹשָׁה חֳדָשִׁים נִסְפֶּה מִפְּנֵי צָרֶיךָ וְחֶרֶב אוֹיְבֶךָ לְמַשֶּׂגֶת וְאִם שְׁלֹשֶׁת יָמִים חֶרֶב יי וְדֶבֶר בָּאָרֶץ וּמַלְאַךְ יי מַשְׁחִית בְּכָל גְּבוּל יִשְׂרָאֵל וְעַתָּה רְאֵה מָה אָשִׁיב אֶת שֹׁלְחִי דָּבָר. (יג) וַיֹּאמֶר דָּוִיד אֶל גָּד צַר לִי מְאֹד אֶפְּלָה נָּא בְיַד יי כִּי רַבִּים רַחֲמָיו מְאֹד וּבְיַד אָדָם אַל אֶפֹּל. (יד) וַיִּתֵּן יי דֶּבֶר בְּיִשְׂרָאֵל וַיִּפֹּל מִיִּשְׂרָאֵל שִׁבְעִים אֶלֶף אִישׁ....
(1) And Satan stood up against Israel, and moved David to number Israel. (2) And David said to Joab and to the princes of the people: ‘Go, number Israel from Beersheba even to Dan; and bring me word, that I may know the sum of them.’ (3) And Joab said: ‘The LORD make His people a hundred times so many more as they are; but, my lord the king, are they not all my lord’s servants? why doth my lord require this thing? why will he be a cause of guilt unto Israel?’ (4) Nevertheless the king’s word prevailed against Joab. Wherefore Joab departed and went throughout all Israel, and came to Jerusalem. (5) And Joab gave up the sum of the numbering of the people unto David. And all they of Israel were a 1,100,000 men that drew sword; and Judah was 470,000 men that drew sword. (6) But Levi and Benjamin he did not number among them; for the king’s word was abominable to Joab. (7) And God was displeased with this thing; therefore He smote Israel. (8) And David said unto God: ‘I have sinned greatly, in that I have done this thing; but now, put away, I beseech Thee, the iniquity of Thy servant; for I have done very foolishly.’ (9) And the LORD spoke unto Gad, David’s seer, saying: (10) ’Go and speak unto David, saying: Thus saith the LORD: I offer thee three things; choose thee one of them, that I may do it unto thee.’ (11) So Gad came to David, and said unto him: ‘Thus saith the LORD: Take which thou wilt: (12) either three years of famine; or three months to be swept away before thy foes, while the sword of thine enemies overtaketh thee; or else three days the sword of the LORD, even pestilence in the land, and the angel of the LORD destroying throughout all the borders of Israel. Now therefore consider what answer I shall return to Him that sent me.’ (13) And David said unto Gad: ‘I am in a great strait; let me fall now into the hand of the LORD, for very great are His mercies; and let me not fall into the hand of man.’ (14) So the LORD sent a pestilence upon Israel; and there fell of Israel seventy thousand men...
III. What is the significance of a census? First explanation
Rashbam on Numbers 1:2
"שאו את ראש כל עדת". לפי שמעתה צריכים לארץ ישראל בני עשרים ראוים לצאת בצבא המלחמה.
"Take ye the sum". Because at this point, they need men aged 20 [and up] to make a military to [conquer] the land of Israel.
שאו את ראש כל עדת בני ישראל - ... ואפשר שיהיה הטעם בזה, בעבור שאינו חזק למלחמה בפחות מעשרים, וכמו שאמרו (אבות ה כא): בן עשרים לרדוף. ...
"Take ye the sum" - A possible reason [for only counting men aged 20 and up] is that below age 20, one is not strong enough for battle, as it says (Mishnah Avot 5:21), "At age twenty one begins to pursue."
Nahum Sarna, JPS Torah Commentary (1991), Exodus 30:11-16
There may have been sound historical reasons for Joab's reaction (see II Samuel 24 and I Chronicles 21, above --EF), for a census almost invariably portended preparation for war or the imposition of a new tax.
Sarna also writes that there is a relationship between the English word "census" (from the Latin 'censere') and the Hebrew word קנס, which means "fine" or "penalty."
IV. Significance of a census: Second explanation
...משל לאדם,... [ש]היה לו פרגמטים אחת של מרגליות נאות, והיה נוטלה ומוציאה במנין, ומניחה במנין. כך כביכול, אמר הקדוש ברוך הוא ... : אתם בני ... לכך מונה אתכם בכל שעה...
A parable: A man had a stock of fine pearls which he used to count before taking out and count again before putting away. So, similarly, God says to the Israelites, "You are my children... and therefore I count you often." (Transl. R. Shai Held)
Akeidat Yitzhak, Numbers, #72
R. Isaac Arama (1420-1494) asks why all the seemingly dull details of the census are necessary. Did God not know the number of Israelites encamped in the desert in any case? Taking account of them one by one, R. Arama argues, serves to teach that each one has individual worth, and is not just a member of the collective. "They were all equal in stature," Arama writes, "and yet the stature of each one was different". (Courtesy of R. Shai Held)
Radak on II Samuel 24:1
...וכבר היה דבר זה נודע בישראל מן התורה כי אם ימנו את ישראל שלא יתנו איש כופר נפשו שיהיה בהם נגף ואפילו ימנה אותם לצורך וצוה דוד את יואב שימנה אותם והיה קשה בעיני יואב לעשות זה הדבר לפי שידע שיחסרו וכן אמר בדברי הימים למה יהיה לאשמה לישראל ואע"פ שיקח מהם כסף או שום דבר כיון שימנה אותם שלא לצורך יחסרו כמו שפי' למעלה בפסוק ויפקדם בטלאים ואמרו רז"ל כל זמן שנמנו ישראל לצורך לא חסרו שלא לצורך חסרו כמו בימי דוד לפיכך היה קשה בעיני יואב לעשות זה הדבר עד שחזק דבר המלך אל יואב ועל שרי החיל...
It was already known among the Israelites, based on the Torah, that if they were to count the Israelites without each person giving a ransom, there would be a plague, even if the counting was for a legitimate purpose. David commanded Joab to count the people, and this command was difficult for Joab to accept this, because he knew they would lose out from it. And so it says in Chronicles, "why will he be a cause of guilt unto Israel?". And even if he did take money or some other object [as a ransom], if the counting was not for a legitimate purpose, they would lose out, as I wrote earlier. Our sages said: "Any time Israel was counted for a legitimate purpose, they did not lose out. But when there was no legitimate purpose, they lost out, such as in the time of David." That is why this command was difficult for Joab to accept, until the king's command overruled Joab and the other generals.
Jacob Milgrom, JPS Torah Commentary (1991), Numbers 31:48-52 and Excursus 2
The basis for the taboo against a census is not known, although one plausible suggestion has been offered: As the shepherd counts his sheep, so the counter of persons must be their owner, a title belonging solely to God and not to man.
V. One attempt at a synthesis
A.F. Kirkpatrick, The Second Book of Samuel, with notes and introduction. Cambridge, England: The University Press, 1908. (Separate sheet)
Notes on sources:
- Rashi: 1040-1105, northern France.
- Rashbam: c. 1085-1158, northern France. Grandson of Rashi.
- Ramban: 1194-1270, Spain/Catalonia and, at the end of his life, the land of Israel.
- Radak: 1160-1235, Provence (southern France).
- Bemidbar Rabbah: Homiletic midrash. There is no scholarly consensus on its dates of authorship.
- Akeidat Yitzhak: R' Isaac ben Moses Arama, 1420-1494, Spain and, after 1492, Italy.
- Nahum Sarna: 1923-2005, United Kingdom and United States (University College London, Gratz College, Jewish Theological Seminary, and Brandeis University).
- Jacob Milgrom: 1923-2010, United States (University of California - Berkeley).
- A. F. Kirkpatrick: 1849-1940, United Kingom (Cambridge University).
Translations of Biblical passages are from the old JPS translation (1917). Translations of Rashi, Rashbam, Ramban, and Radak are my own. Translation of Akeidat Yitzhak is by R. Shai Held. Contemporary sources were written originally in English.