(א) משֶׁה קִבֵּל תּוֹרָה מִסִּינַי, וּמְסָרָהּ לִיהוֹשֻׁעַ, וִיהוֹשֻׁעַ לִזְקֵנִים, וּזְקֵנִים לִנְבִיאִים, וּנְבִיאִים מְסָרוּהָ לְאַנְשֵׁי כְנֶסֶת הַגְּדוֹלָה. הֵם אָמְרוּ שְׁלשָׁה דְבָרִים, הֱווּ מְתוּנִים בַּדִּין, וְהַעֲמִידוּ תַלְמִידִים הַרְבֵּה, וַעֲשׂוּ סְיָג לַתּוֹרָה:
(1) Moses received the Torah at Sinai and transmitted it to Joshua, Joshua to the elders, and the elders to the prophets, and the prophets to the Men of the Great Assembly. They said three things: Be patient in [the administration of] justice, raise many disciples and make a fence round the Torah.
(יב) הִלֵּל וְשַׁמַּאי קִבְּלוּ מֵהֶם. הִלֵּל אוֹמֵר, הֱוֵי מִתַּלְמִידָיו שֶׁל אַהֲרֹן, אוֹהֵב שָׁלוֹם וְרוֹדֵף שָׁלוֹם, אוֹהֵב אֶת הַבְּרִיּוֹת וּמְקָרְבָן לַתּוֹרָה:
(12) Hillel and Shammai received from them. Hillel used to say: be of the disciples of Aaron, loving peace and pursuing peace, loving mankind and drawing them close to the Torah.
Josephus, Antiquities Book 13
5.9 At this time there were three sects among the Jews, who had different opinions concerning human actions. The one was called the sect of the Pharisees; another the sect of the Sadducees; and the other the sect of the Essens. Now for the Pharisees, they say that some actions, but not all are the work of fate: and some of them are in our own power; and that they are liable to fate,14 but are not caused by fate. But the sect of the Essens affirm, that fate governs all things; and that nothing befalls men but what is according to its determination. And for the Sadducees, they take away fate; and say there is no such thing; and that the events of human affairs are not at its disposal: but they suppose that all our actions are in our own power; so that we are our selves the causes of what is good, and receive what is evil from our own folly. (13) However, I have given a more exact account of these opinions in the second book of the Jewish War.15
10.6 What I would now explain is this, that the Pharisees have delivered to the people a great many observances by succession from their fathers, which are not written in the laws of Moses: and for that reason it is, that the Sadducees reject them: and say, that we are to esteem those observances to be obligatory which are in the written word; but are not to observe what are derived from the tradition of our fore-fathers. And concerning these things it is that great disputes and differences have arisen among them. While the Sadducees are able to persuade none but the rich; and have not the populace obsequious to them: but the Pharisees have the multitude on their side.42 But about these two sects, and that of the Essens, I have treated accurately in the second book of Jewish affairs.43
Josephus, Antiquities Book 18
16.1-2
1. [An. 78.] So Alexandra, when she had taken the fortress, acted as her husband had suggested to her; and spake to the Pharisees, and put all things into their power; both as to the dead body, and as to the affairs of the Kingdom: and thereby pacified their anger against Alexander, and made them bear good will and friendship to him. Who then came among the multitude, and made speeches to them; and laid before them the actions of Alexander; and told them, that they had lost a righteous King: and by the commendations they gave him, they brought them to grieve, and to be in heaviness for him: so that he had a funeral more splendid than had any of the Kings before him. Alexander left behind him two sons: Hyrcanus, and Aristobulus: but committed the Kingdom to Alexandra. Now as to these two sons, Hyrcanus was indeed unable to manage publick affairs; and delighted rather in a quiet life. But the younger, Aristobulus, was an active and a bold man. And for this woman her self, Alexandra, she was loved by the multitude; because she seemed displeased at the offences her husband had been guilty of.
2. So she made Hyrcanus High Priest; because he was the elder: but much more because he cared not to meddle with politicks; and permitted the Pharisees to do every thing. To whom also she ordered the multitude to be obedient. She also restored again those practices which the Pharisees had introduced, according to the traditions of their fore-fathers; and which her father-in-law, Hyrcanus, had abrogated. So she had indeed the name of the Regent; but the Pharisees had the authority. For it was they who restored such as had been banished, and set such as were prisoners at liberty: and, to say all at once, they differed in nothing from Lords. However, the Queen also took care of the affairs of the Kingdom, and got together a great body of mercenary soldiers; and increased her own army to such a degree, that she became terrible to the neighbouring tyrants; and took hostages of them. And the country was entirely at peace; excepting the Pharisees, for they disturbed the Queen, and desired that she would kill those who persuaded Alexander to slay the eight hundred men.
1.2-6
2. The Jews had, for a great while, had three sects of philosophy peculiar to themselves. The sect of the Essens; and the sect of the Sadducees; and the third sort of opinions was that of those called Pharisees. Of which sects although I have already spoken in the second book of the Jewish war;1 yet will I a little touch upon them now.
3. Now for the Pharisees, they live meanly, and despise delicacies in diet; and they follow the contract of reason: and what that prescribes to them as good for them they do: and they think they ought earnestly to strive to observe reason’s dictates for practice. They also pay a respect to such as are in years: nor are they so bold as to contradict them in any thing which they have introduced. And when they determine that all things are done by fate,2 they do not take away the freedom from men of acting as they think fit: since their notion is, that it hath pleased God to make a temperament; whereby what he wills is done; but so that the will of man can act virtuously or viciously. They also believe that souls have an immortal vigour in them: and that under the earth there will be rewards, or punishments; according as they have lived virtuously or viciously in this life: and the latter are to be detained in an everlasting prison; but that the former shall have power to revive and live again. On account of which doctrines they are able greatly to persuade the body of the people: and whatsoever they do about divine worship, prayers, and sacrifices, they perform them according to their direction. Insomuch, that the cities give great attestations to them, on account of their entire virtuous conduct, both in the actions of their lives, and their discourses also.
4. But the doctrine of the Sadducees is this; that souls die with the bodies. Nor do they regard the observation of any thing besides what the law enjoins them. For they think it an instance of virtue to dispute with those teachers of philosophy whom they frequent. But this doctrine is received but by a few: yet by those still of the greatest dignity. But they are able to do almost nothing of themselves. For when they become magistrates; as they are unwillingly and by force sometimes obliged to be; they addict themselves to the notions of the Pharisees: because the multitude would not otherwise bear them.
5. The doctrine of the Essens is this; that all things are best ascribed to God. They teach the immortality of souls: and esteem that the rewards of righteousness are to be earnestly striven for. And when they send what they have dedicated to God into the temple, they do not offer sacrifices: (3) because they have more pure lustrations of their own. On which account they are excluded from the common court of the temple: but offer their sacrifices themselves. Yet is their course of life better than that of other men; and they entirely addict themselves to husbandry. It also deserves our admiration, how much they exceed all other men that addict themselves to virtue, and this in righteousness: and indeed to such a degree, that as it hath never appeared among any other men, neither Greeks nor Barbarians, no not for a little time: so hath it endured a long while among them. This is demonstrated by that institution of theirs, which will not suffer any thing to hinder them from having all things in common: so that a rich man enjoys no more of his own wealth, than he who hath nothing at all. There are about four thousand men that live in this way: and neither marry wives, nor are desirous to keep servants: as thinking the latter tempts men to be unjust; and the former gives the handle to domestick quarrels. But as they live by themselves, they minister one to another. They also appoint certain stewards to receive the incomes of their revenues, and of the fruits of the ground; such as are good men, and priests: who are to get their corn, and their food ready for them. They none of them differ from others of the Essens in their way of living: but do the most resemble those Dacæ, who are called Polistæ. [Dwellers in cities.] (4)
6. But of the fourth sect of Jewish philosophy, Judas the Galilean was the author. These men agree in all other things with the Pharisaick notions; but they have an inviolable attachment to liberty; and say that God is to be their only ruler and lord. They also do not value dying any kinds of death; nor indeed do they heed the deaths of their relations and friends: nor can any such fear make them call any man lord. And since this immoveable resolution of theirs is well known to a great many, I shall speak no farther about that matter. Nor am I afraid that any thing I have said of them should be disbelieved: but rather fear that what I have said is beneath the resolution they shew when they undergo pain. And it was in Gessius Florus’s time that the nation began to grow mad with this distemper; who was our procurator; and who occasioned the Jews to go wild with it, by the abuse of his authority; and to make them revolt from the Romans. And these are the sects of Jewish philosophy.
5.9 At this time there were three sects among the Jews, who had different opinions concerning human actions. The one was called the sect of the Pharisees; another the sect of the Sadducees; and the other the sect of the Essens. Now for the Pharisees, they say that some actions, but not all are the work of fate: and some of them are in our own power; and that they are liable to fate,14 but are not caused by fate. But the sect of the Essens affirm, that fate governs all things; and that nothing befalls men but what is according to its determination. And for the Sadducees, they take away fate; and say there is no such thing; and that the events of human affairs are not at its disposal: but they suppose that all our actions are in our own power; so that we are our selves the causes of what is good, and receive what is evil from our own folly. (13) However, I have given a more exact account of these opinions in the second book of the Jewish War.15
10.6 What I would now explain is this, that the Pharisees have delivered to the people a great many observances by succession from their fathers, which are not written in the laws of Moses: and for that reason it is, that the Sadducees reject them: and say, that we are to esteem those observances to be obligatory which are in the written word; but are not to observe what are derived from the tradition of our fore-fathers. And concerning these things it is that great disputes and differences have arisen among them. While the Sadducees are able to persuade none but the rich; and have not the populace obsequious to them: but the Pharisees have the multitude on their side.42 But about these two sects, and that of the Essens, I have treated accurately in the second book of Jewish affairs.43
Josephus, Antiquities Book 18
16.1-2
1. [An. 78.] So Alexandra, when she had taken the fortress, acted as her husband had suggested to her; and spake to the Pharisees, and put all things into their power; both as to the dead body, and as to the affairs of the Kingdom: and thereby pacified their anger against Alexander, and made them bear good will and friendship to him. Who then came among the multitude, and made speeches to them; and laid before them the actions of Alexander; and told them, that they had lost a righteous King: and by the commendations they gave him, they brought them to grieve, and to be in heaviness for him: so that he had a funeral more splendid than had any of the Kings before him. Alexander left behind him two sons: Hyrcanus, and Aristobulus: but committed the Kingdom to Alexandra. Now as to these two sons, Hyrcanus was indeed unable to manage publick affairs; and delighted rather in a quiet life. But the younger, Aristobulus, was an active and a bold man. And for this woman her self, Alexandra, she was loved by the multitude; because she seemed displeased at the offences her husband had been guilty of.
2. So she made Hyrcanus High Priest; because he was the elder: but much more because he cared not to meddle with politicks; and permitted the Pharisees to do every thing. To whom also she ordered the multitude to be obedient. She also restored again those practices which the Pharisees had introduced, according to the traditions of their fore-fathers; and which her father-in-law, Hyrcanus, had abrogated. So she had indeed the name of the Regent; but the Pharisees had the authority. For it was they who restored such as had been banished, and set such as were prisoners at liberty: and, to say all at once, they differed in nothing from Lords. However, the Queen also took care of the affairs of the Kingdom, and got together a great body of mercenary soldiers; and increased her own army to such a degree, that she became terrible to the neighbouring tyrants; and took hostages of them. And the country was entirely at peace; excepting the Pharisees, for they disturbed the Queen, and desired that she would kill those who persuaded Alexander to slay the eight hundred men.
1.2-6
2. The Jews had, for a great while, had three sects of philosophy peculiar to themselves. The sect of the Essens; and the sect of the Sadducees; and the third sort of opinions was that of those called Pharisees. Of which sects although I have already spoken in the second book of the Jewish war;1 yet will I a little touch upon them now.
3. Now for the Pharisees, they live meanly, and despise delicacies in diet; and they follow the contract of reason: and what that prescribes to them as good for them they do: and they think they ought earnestly to strive to observe reason’s dictates for practice. They also pay a respect to such as are in years: nor are they so bold as to contradict them in any thing which they have introduced. And when they determine that all things are done by fate,2 they do not take away the freedom from men of acting as they think fit: since their notion is, that it hath pleased God to make a temperament; whereby what he wills is done; but so that the will of man can act virtuously or viciously. They also believe that souls have an immortal vigour in them: and that under the earth there will be rewards, or punishments; according as they have lived virtuously or viciously in this life: and the latter are to be detained in an everlasting prison; but that the former shall have power to revive and live again. On account of which doctrines they are able greatly to persuade the body of the people: and whatsoever they do about divine worship, prayers, and sacrifices, they perform them according to their direction. Insomuch, that the cities give great attestations to them, on account of their entire virtuous conduct, both in the actions of their lives, and their discourses also.
4. But the doctrine of the Sadducees is this; that souls die with the bodies. Nor do they regard the observation of any thing besides what the law enjoins them. For they think it an instance of virtue to dispute with those teachers of philosophy whom they frequent. But this doctrine is received but by a few: yet by those still of the greatest dignity. But they are able to do almost nothing of themselves. For when they become magistrates; as they are unwillingly and by force sometimes obliged to be; they addict themselves to the notions of the Pharisees: because the multitude would not otherwise bear them.
5. The doctrine of the Essens is this; that all things are best ascribed to God. They teach the immortality of souls: and esteem that the rewards of righteousness are to be earnestly striven for. And when they send what they have dedicated to God into the temple, they do not offer sacrifices: (3) because they have more pure lustrations of their own. On which account they are excluded from the common court of the temple: but offer their sacrifices themselves. Yet is their course of life better than that of other men; and they entirely addict themselves to husbandry. It also deserves our admiration, how much they exceed all other men that addict themselves to virtue, and this in righteousness: and indeed to such a degree, that as it hath never appeared among any other men, neither Greeks nor Barbarians, no not for a little time: so hath it endured a long while among them. This is demonstrated by that institution of theirs, which will not suffer any thing to hinder them from having all things in common: so that a rich man enjoys no more of his own wealth, than he who hath nothing at all. There are about four thousand men that live in this way: and neither marry wives, nor are desirous to keep servants: as thinking the latter tempts men to be unjust; and the former gives the handle to domestick quarrels. But as they live by themselves, they minister one to another. They also appoint certain stewards to receive the incomes of their revenues, and of the fruits of the ground; such as are good men, and priests: who are to get their corn, and their food ready for them. They none of them differ from others of the Essens in their way of living: but do the most resemble those Dacæ, who are called Polistæ. [Dwellers in cities.] (4)
6. But of the fourth sect of Jewish philosophy, Judas the Galilean was the author. These men agree in all other things with the Pharisaick notions; but they have an inviolable attachment to liberty; and say that God is to be their only ruler and lord. They also do not value dying any kinds of death; nor indeed do they heed the deaths of their relations and friends: nor can any such fear make them call any man lord. And since this immoveable resolution of theirs is well known to a great many, I shall speak no farther about that matter. Nor am I afraid that any thing I have said of them should be disbelieved: but rather fear that what I have said is beneath the resolution they shew when they undergo pain. And it was in Gessius Florus’s time that the nation began to grow mad with this distemper; who was our procurator; and who occasioned the Jews to go wild with it, by the abuse of his authority; and to make them revolt from the Romans. And these are the sects of Jewish philosophy.