Who are the People of Israel?

"The question of national identity--the attempt to fathom the entangled relations between Israel and God, between Israel and other nations--is one of the most resonant and unresolvable questions in the Bible. In tackling it, the biblical text relies not on philosophical contemplation but rather on narrative."--Ilana Pardes, Imagining the Birth of Ancient Israel in Cultures of the Jews: A New History, David Biale (ed.) at 10.

The People of Israel are Among the Descendants of Adam and Eve

בראשית א׳:כ״ו-ל״א

(כו) וַיֹּ֣אמֶר אֱלֹהִ֔ים נַֽעֲשֶׂ֥ה אָדָ֛ם בְּצַלְמֵ֖נוּ כִּדְמוּתֵ֑נוּ וְיִרְדּוּ֩ בִדְגַ֨ת הַיָּ֜ם וּבְע֣וֹף הַשָּׁמַ֗יִם וּבַבְּהֵמָה֙ וּבְכָל־הָאָ֔רֶץ וּבְכָל־הָרֶ֖מֶשׂ הָֽרֹמֵ֥שׂ עַל־הָאָֽרֶץ׃ (כז) וַיִּבְרָ֨א אֱלֹהִ֤ים ׀ אֶת־הָֽאָדָם֙ בְּצַלְמ֔וֹ בְּצֶ֥לֶם אֱלֹהִ֖ים בָּרָ֣א אֹת֑וֹ זָכָ֥ר וּנְקֵבָ֖ה בָּרָ֥א אֹתָֽם׃ (כח) וַיְבָ֣רֶךְ אֹתָם֮ אֱלֹהִים֒ וַיֹּ֨אמֶר לָהֶ֜ם אֱלֹהִ֗ים פְּר֥וּ וּרְב֛וּ וּמִלְא֥וּ אֶת־הָאָ֖רֶץ וְכִבְשֻׁ֑הָ וּרְד֞וּ בִּדְגַ֤ת הַיָּם֙ וּבְע֣וֹף הַשָּׁמַ֔יִם וּבְכָל־חַיָּ֖ה הָֽרֹמֶ֥שֶׂת עַל־הָאָֽרֶץ׃ (כט) וַיֹּ֣אמֶר אֱלֹהִ֗ים הִנֵּה֩ נָתַ֨תִּי לָכֶ֜ם אֶת־כָּל־עֵ֣שֶׂב ׀ זֹרֵ֣עַ זֶ֗רַע אֲשֶׁר֙ עַל־פְּנֵ֣י כָל־הָאָ֔רֶץ וְאֶת־כָּל־הָעֵ֛ץ אֲשֶׁר־בּ֥וֹ פְרִי־עֵ֖ץ זֹרֵ֣עַ זָ֑רַע לָכֶ֥ם יִֽהְיֶ֖ה לְאָכְלָֽה׃ (ל) וּֽלְכָל־חַיַּ֣ת הָ֠אָרֶץ וּלְכָל־ע֨וֹף הַשָּׁמַ֜יִם וּלְכֹ֣ל ׀ רוֹמֵ֣שׂ עַל־הָאָ֗רֶץ אֲשֶׁר־בּוֹ֙ נֶ֣פֶשׁ חַיָּ֔ה אֶת־כָּל־יֶ֥רֶק עֵ֖שֶׂב לְאָכְלָ֑ה וַֽיְהִי־כֵֽן׃ (לא) וַיַּ֤רְא אֱלֹהִים֙ אֶת־כָּל־אֲשֶׁ֣ר עָשָׂ֔ה וְהִנֵּה־ט֖וֹב מְאֹ֑ד וַֽיְהִי־עֶ֥רֶב וַֽיְהִי־בֹ֖קֶר י֥וֹם הַשִּׁשִּֽׁי׃ (פ)

Genesis 1:26-31

(26) And God said, “Let us make man in our image, after our likeness. They shall rule the fish of the sea, the birds of the sky, the cattle, the whole earth, and all the creeping things that creep on earth.” (27) And God created man in His image, in the image of God He created him; male and female He created them. (28) God blessed them and God said to them, “Be fertile and increase, fill the earth and master it; and rule the fish of the sea, the birds of the sky, and all the living things that creep on earth.” (29) God said, “See, I give you every seed-bearing plant that is upon all the earth, and every tree that has seed-bearing fruit; they shall be yours for food. (30) And to all the animals on land, to all the birds of the sky, and to everything that creeps on earth, in which there is the breath of life, [I give] all the green plants for food.” And it was so. (31) And God saw all that He had made, and found it very good. And there was evening and there was morning, the sixth day.

סנהדרין ל״ז א:י״ד-ט״ו

ומפני שלום הבריות שלא יאמר אדם לחבירו אבא גדול מאביך ושלא יהו המינים אומרים הרבה רשויות בשמים ולהגיד גדולתו של הקב"ה שאדם טובע כמה מטבעות בחותם אחד כולן דומין זה לזה ומלך מלכי המלכים הקב"ה טבע כל אדם בחותמו של אדם הראשון ואין אחד מהן דומה לחבירו לפיכך כל אחד ואחד חייב לומר בשבילי נברא העולם

Sanhedrin 37a:14-15

The mishna cites another reason Adam the first man was created alone: And this was done due to the importance of maintaining peace among people, so that one person will not say to another: My progenitor, is greater than your progenitor. And it was also so that the idol worshippers who believe in multiple gods will not say: There are many authorities in Heaven, and each created a different person. And this serves to tell of the greatness of the Holy One, Blessed be God, as when a person stamps several coins with one seal, they are all similar to each other. But the supreme Sovereign of Sovereigns, the Holy One, Blessed be God, stamped all people with the seal of Adam the first human being, as all of them are his offspring, and not one of them is similar to another. Therefore, since all humanity descends from one person, each and every person is obligated to say: For me the world was created.

The People of Israel are Among the Descendants of Shem and Eiver

בראשית ט׳:י״ח-י״ט

(יח) וַיִּֽהְי֣וּ בְנֵי־נֹ֗חַ הַיֹּֽצְאִים֙ מִן־הַתֵּבָ֔ה שֵׁ֖ם וְחָ֣ם וָיָ֑פֶת וְחָ֕ם ה֖וּא אֲבִ֥י כְנָֽעַן׃ (יט) שְׁלֹשָׁ֥ה אֵ֖לֶּה בְּנֵי־נֹ֑חַ וּמֵאֵ֖לֶּה נָֽפְצָ֥ה כָל־הָאָֽרֶץ׃

Genesis 9:18-19

(18) The sons of Noah who came out of the ark were Shem, Ham, and Japheth—Ham being the father of Canaan. (19) These three were the sons of Noah, and from these the whole world branched out.

בראשית י׳:כ״א-ל״א

(כא) וּלְשֵׁ֥ם יֻלַּ֖ד גַּם־ה֑וּא אֲבִי֙ כָּל־בְּנֵי־עֵ֔בֶר אֲחִ֖י יֶ֥פֶת הַגָּדֽוֹל׃ (כב) בְּנֵ֥י שֵׁ֖ם עֵילָ֣ם וְאַשּׁ֑וּר וְאַרְפַּכְשַׁ֖ד וְל֥וּד וַֽאֲרָֽם׃ (כג) וּבְנֵ֖י אֲרָ֑ם ע֥וּץ וְח֖וּל וְגֶ֥תֶר וָמַֽשׁ׃ (כד) וְאַרְפַּכְשַׁ֖ד יָלַ֣ד אֶת־שָׁ֑לַח וְשֶׁ֖לַח יָלַ֥ד אֶת־עֵֽבֶר׃ (כה) וּלְעֵ֥בֶר יֻלַּ֖ד שְׁנֵ֣י בָנִ֑ים שֵׁ֣ם הָֽאֶחָ֞ד פֶּ֗לֶג כִּ֤י בְיָמָיו֙ נִפְלְגָ֣ה הָאָ֔רֶץ וְשֵׁ֥ם אָחִ֖יו יָקְטָֽן׃ (כו) וְיָקְטָ֣ן יָלַ֔ד אֶת־אַלְמוֹדָ֖ד וְאֶת־שָׁ֑לֶף וְאֶת־חֲצַרְמָ֖וֶת וְאֶת־יָֽרַח׃ (כז) וְאֶת־הֲדוֹרָ֥ם וְאֶת־אוּזָ֖ל וְאֶת־דִּקְלָֽה׃ (כח) וְאֶת־עוֹבָ֥ל וְאֶת־אֲבִֽימָאֵ֖ל וְאֶת־שְׁבָֽא׃ (כט) וְאֶת־אוֹפִ֥ר וְאֶת־חֲוִילָ֖ה וְאֶת־יוֹבָ֑ב כָּל־אֵ֖לֶּה בְּנֵ֥י יָקְטָֽן׃ (ל) וַֽיְהִ֥י מוֹשָׁבָ֖ם מִמֵּשָׁ֑א בֹּאֲכָ֥ה סְפָ֖רָה הַ֥ר הַקֶּֽדֶם׃ (לא) אֵ֣לֶּה בְנֵי־שֵׁ֔ם לְמִשְׁפְּחֹתָ֖ם לִלְשֹׁנֹתָ֑ם בְּאַרְצֹתָ֖ם לְגוֹיֵהֶֽם׃

Genesis 10:21-31

(21) Sons were also born to Shem, ancestor of all the children of Eiver and older brother of Japhet. (22) The descendants of Shem: Elam, Asshur, Arpachshad, Lud, and Aram. (23) The descendants of Aram: Uz, Hul, Gether, and Mash. (24) Arpachshad begot Shelah, and Shelah begot Eiver. (25) Two sons were born to Eiver: the name of the first was Peleg, for in his days the earth was divided; and the name of his brother was Joktan. (26) Joktan begot Almodad, Sheleph, Hazarmaveth, Jerah, (27) Hadoram, Uzal, Diklah, (28) Obal, Abimael, Sheba, (29) Ophir, Havilah, and Jobab; all these were the descendants of Joktan. (30) Their settlements extended from Mesha as far as Sephar, the hill country to the east. (31) These are the descendants of Shem according to their clans and languages, by their lands, according to their nations.

The People of Israel are Descendants of Shem but the People of Israel are not "Semites"

AntiSemitism, Deborah Lipstadt at 23: "The word "Semitic" was coined in 1781 by a German historian to describe a group of languages that originated in the Middle East and that have some linguistic similarities; they include Arabic, Hebrew, Aramaic, Amharic, ancient Akkadian, and Ugaritic. These's nothing that bind the speakers of these different languages together as a people."

Semites, Encyclopedia Judaica, Moshe Greenberg, "Early in the development of modern ethnology, it was realized that the list in Genesis (Gen. 10:21-31) combines peoples that sometimes have nothing in common but geographic propinquity. "Semite" was then defined by the supposed physical characteristics of the chief surviving representatives of the lists, the Jews and the Arabs: dolichocephalic skulls; curly and abundant hair, slight wavy or straight strong beard, predominantly black; prominent (straight or acquiline) nose; oval face. The problematic nature and evil results of earlier racial theories have led to a restriction of the terms Semite and Semitic in careful modern usage to linguistic categories. Aside from biblical referent, the linguistic is the only modern scholarly-scientific use of the term.

Antisemitism: The Longest Hatred, Robert Wistrich, at xvi: "Antisemitism--a term which came into general use as part of [a] politically motivated anti-Jewish campaign of the 1880s--was never directed against 'Semites' as such. The term 'Semetic' derived from the Biblical Shem, one of Noah's three sons, and designated a group of cognate languages including Hebrew, Arabic, Aramaic, Babylonian, Assyrian and Ethiopic, rather than an ethnic or racial group. Similarly, the contrasting term 'Aryan' or 'Indo-European', which became popular at this time, referrred originally to the Indian branch of the Indo-European languages....Nevertheless, in the late nineteenth century this pseudo-scientific nonsense became eminently respectable even among the European intellectual elites, so that the distinction between 'Aryan' and 'Semetic' was easily grafted on to the much older distinction between Christian and Jew. As a result, for the last hundred years, the illogical term 'antisemitism', which never really meant hatred of 'Semites' (for example, Arabs) at all, but rather hatred of Jews, has come to be accepted in general usage as denoting all forms of hostility towards Jews and Judaism throughout history.

The People of Israel are Part of the Diversity of Peoples that Follows the Destruction of the Tower of Babel

בראשית י״א:א׳-ח׳

(א) וַֽיְהִ֥י כָל־הָאָ֖רֶץ שָׂפָ֣ה אֶחָ֑ת וּדְבָרִ֖ים אֲחָדִֽים׃ (ב) וַֽיְהִ֖י בְּנָסְעָ֣ם מִקֶּ֑דֶם וַֽיִּמְצְא֥וּ בִקְעָ֛ה בְּאֶ֥רֶץ שִׁנְעָ֖ר וַיֵּ֥שְׁבוּ שָֽׁם׃ (ג) וַיֹּאמְר֞וּ אִ֣ישׁ אֶל־רֵעֵ֗הוּ הָ֚בָה נִלְבְּנָ֣ה לְבֵנִ֔ים וְנִשְׂרְפָ֖ה לִשְׂרֵפָ֑ה וַתְּהִ֨י לָהֶ֤ם הַלְּבֵנָה֙ לְאָ֔בֶן וְהַ֣חֵמָ֔ר הָיָ֥ה לָהֶ֖ם לַחֹֽמֶר׃ (ד) וַיֹּאמְר֞וּ הָ֣בָה ׀ נִבְנֶה־לָּ֣נוּ עִ֗יר וּמִגְדָּל֙ וְרֹאשׁ֣וֹ בַשָּׁמַ֔יִם וְנַֽעֲשֶׂה־לָּ֖נוּ שֵׁ֑ם פֶּן־נָפ֖וּץ עַל־פְּנֵ֥י כָל־הָאָֽרֶץ׃ (ה) וַיֵּ֣רֶד יְהוָ֔ה לִרְאֹ֥ת אֶת־הָעִ֖יר וְאֶת־הַמִּגְדָּ֑ל אֲשֶׁ֥ר בָּנ֖וּ בְּנֵ֥י הָאָדָֽם׃ (ו) וַיֹּ֣אמֶר יְהוָ֗ה הֵ֣ן עַ֤ם אֶחָד֙ וְשָׂפָ֤ה אַחַת֙ לְכֻלָּ֔ם וְזֶ֖ה הַחִלָּ֣ם לַעֲשׂ֑וֹת וְעַתָּה֙ לֹֽא־יִבָּצֵ֣ר מֵהֶ֔ם כֹּ֛ל אֲשֶׁ֥ר יָזְמ֖וּ לַֽעֲשֽׂוֹת׃ (ז) הָ֚בָה נֵֽרְדָ֔ה וְנָבְלָ֥ה שָׁ֖ם שְׂפָתָ֑ם אֲשֶׁר֙ לֹ֣א יִשְׁמְע֔וּ אִ֖ישׁ שְׂפַ֥ת רֵעֵֽהוּ׃ (ח) וַיָּ֨פֶץ יְהוָ֥ה אֹתָ֛ם מִשָּׁ֖ם עַל־פְּנֵ֣י כָל־הָאָ֑רֶץ וַֽיַּחְדְּל֖וּ לִבְנֹ֥ת הָעִֽיר׃

Genesis 11:1-8

(1) Everyone on earth had the same language and the same words. (2) And as they migrated from the east, they came upon a valley in the land of Shinar and settled there. (3) They said to one another, “Come, let us make bricks and burn them hard.”—Brick served them as stone, and bitumen served them as mortar.— (4) And they said, “Come, let us build us a city, and a tower with its top in the sky, to make a name for ourselves; else we shall be scattered all over the world.” (5) The LORD came down to look at the city and tower that man had built, (6) and the LORD said, “If, as one people with one language for all, this is how they have begun to act, then nothing that they may propose to do will be out of their reach. (7) Let us, then, go down and confound their speech there, so that they shall not understand one another’s speech.” (8) Thus the LORD scattered them from there over the face of the whole earth; and they stopped building the city.

העמק דבר על בראשית י״א:ד׳:ג׳

(ג) פן נפוץ על פני כל הארץ. אמנם יש להבין מה חששו אם יצאו כמה לארץ אחרת. ומובן שזה היה שייך לדברים אחדים שהיה ביניהם ובאשר אין דעות ב״א שוים חששו שלא יצאו ב״א מדעה זו ויהיו במחשבה אחרת ע״כ היו משגיחים שלא יצא איש מישוב שלהם. ומי שסר מדברים אחדים שביניהם היה משפטו לשריפה כאשר עשו לא״א. נמצא היו דברים אחדים שביניהם לרועץ שהחליטו להרוג את מי שלא יחשוב כדעתם. ויבואר עוד להלן ו׳:

Haamek Davar on Genesis 11:4:3

(3) Lest we be scattered over all the face of the earth - However, we must understand why they feared that someone might leave to another land. And it is understood that this was related to the uniformity that was among them. And since the opinions of people are not identical, they feared that people might abandon this philosophy and adopt another. Therefore they sought to ensure that no one would leave their society. And one who veered from this uniformity among them was judged with burning, just as they did to our forefather Abraham. And the "same words" can also be seen as the fact that they would kill whoever did not think like them. And more is explained on verse 6.

Subversive Sequels in the Bible, Judy Klitsner, at 44: "Since God wishes for human autonomy, any attempt to suppress the divine spark of individuality, such as the collective action of the tower builders, constitutes a rebellion against God. As the Mishnah states, "God has stampled each individual with the imprint of Adam, and there is no one person who is identical to another" (Sanhedrin 4:5). It is thus a religious imperative to maintain one's singularity. One aspect of the people's rebellion against God lies in their attempts at effacing the individual. Their attempts constitute a negation of God's plan for humanity to be unique as God is unique."

The People of Israel are descendants of Abraham and Sarah

בראשית י״ב:א׳-ו׳

(א) וַיֹּ֤אמֶר יְהוָה֙ אֶל־אַבְרָ֔ם לֶךְ־לְךָ֛ מֵאַרְצְךָ֥ וּמִמּֽוֹלַדְתְּךָ֖ וּמִבֵּ֣ית אָבִ֑יךָ אֶל־הָאָ֖רֶץ אֲשֶׁ֥ר אַרְאֶֽךָּ׃ (ב) וְאֶֽעֶשְׂךָ֙ לְג֣וֹי גָּד֔וֹל וַאֲבָ֣רֶכְךָ֔ וַאֲגַדְּלָ֖ה שְׁמֶ֑ךָ וֶהְיֵ֖ה בְּרָכָֽה׃ (ג) וַאֲבָֽרֲכָה֙ מְבָ֣רְכֶ֔יךָ וּמְקַלֶּלְךָ֖ אָאֹ֑ר וְנִבְרְכ֣וּ בְךָ֔ כֹּ֖ל מִשְׁפְּחֹ֥ת הָאֲדָמָֽה׃ (ד) וַיֵּ֣לֶךְ אַבְרָ֗ם כַּאֲשֶׁ֨ר דִּבֶּ֤ר אֵלָיו֙ יְהוָ֔ה וַיֵּ֥לֶךְ אִתּ֖וֹ ל֑וֹט וְאַבְרָ֗ם בֶּן־חָמֵ֤שׁ שָׁנִים֙ וְשִׁבְעִ֣ים שָׁנָ֔ה בְּצֵאת֖וֹ מֵחָרָֽן׃ (ה) וַיִּקַּ֣ח אַבְרָם֩ אֶת־שָׂרַ֨י אִשְׁתּ֜וֹ וְאֶת־ל֣וֹט בֶּן־אָחִ֗יו וְאֶת־כָּל־רְכוּשָׁם֙ אֲשֶׁ֣ר רָכָ֔שׁוּ וְאֶת־הַנֶּ֖פֶשׁ אֲשֶׁר־עָשׂ֣וּ בְחָרָ֑ן וַיֵּצְא֗וּ לָלֶ֙כֶת֙ אַ֣רְצָה כְּנַ֔עַן וַיָּבֹ֖אוּ אַ֥רְצָה כְּנָֽעַן׃ (ו) וַיַּעֲבֹ֤ר אַבְרָם֙ בָּאָ֔רֶץ עַ֚ד מְק֣וֹם שְׁכֶ֔ם עַ֖ד אֵל֣וֹן מוֹרֶ֑ה וְהַֽכְּנַעֲנִ֖י אָ֥ז בָּאָֽרֶץ׃

Genesis 12:1-6

(1) The LORD said to Abram, “Go forth from your native land and from your father’s house to the land that I will show you. (2) I will make of you a great nation, And I will bless you; I will make your name great, And you shall be a blessing. (3) I will bless those who bless you And curse him that curses you; And all the families of the earth Shall bless themselves by you.” (4) Abram went forth as the LORD had commanded him, and Lot went with him. Abram was seventy-five years old when he left Haran. (5) Abram took his wife Sarai and his brother’s son Lot, and all the wealth that they had amassed, and the persons that they had acquired in Haran; and they set out for the land of Canaan. When they arrived in the land of Canaan, (6) Abram passed through the land as far as the site of Shechem, at the terebinth of Moreh. The Canaanites were then in the land.

רש"י על בראשית י״ב:א׳:א׳

(א) לך לך. לַהֲנָאָתְךָ וּלְטוֹבָתְךָ, שָׁם אֶעֶשְׂךָ לְגוֹי גָדוֹל, כָּאן אִי אַתָּה זוֹכֶה לְבָנִים, וְעוֹד שֶׁאוֹדִיעַ טִבְעֲךָ בָּעוֹלָם:

Rashi on Genesis 12:1:1

(1) לך לך "Go to yourself" — for your own benefit, for your own good: there I will make of you a great nation whilst here you will not merit the privilege of having children. Furthermore, I shall make known your character throughout the world.

בראשית רבה ל״ט:י״ד

(יד) וְאֶת הַנֶּפֶשׁ אֲשֶׁר עָשׂוּ בְחָרָן (בראשית יב, ה), אָמַר רַבִּי אֶלְעָזָר בַּר זִמְרָא אִם מִתְכַּנְסִין כָּל בָּאֵי הָעוֹלָם לִבְרֹא אֲפִלּוּ יַתּוּשׁ אֶחָד אֵינָן יְכוֹלִין לִזְרֹק בּוֹ נְשָׁמָה, וְאַתְּ אָמַר וְאֶת הַנֶּפֶשׁ אֲשֶׁר עָשׂוּ, אֶלָּא אֵלּוּ הַגֵּרִים שֶׁגִּיְּרוּ, וְאִם כֵּן שֶׁגִּיְּרוּ לָמָּה אֲשֶׁר עָשׂוּ, אֶלָּא לְלַמֶּדְךָ שֶׁכָּל מִי שֶׁהוּא מְקָרֵב אֶת הָעוֹבֵד כּוֹכָבִים וּמְגַיְּרוֹ כְּאִלּוּ בְּרָאוֹ. וְיֹאמַר אֲשֶׁר עָשָׂה, לָמָּה נֶאֱמַר אֲשֶׁר עָשׂוּ, אָמַר רַב הוּנָא אַבְרָהָם הָיָה מְגַיֵּר אֶת הָאֲנָשִׁים וְשָׂרָה מְגַיֶּרֶת אֶת הַנָּשִׁים.

Bereshit Rabbah 39:14

"The souls that they made in Haran": Rabbi Elazar bar Zimrah said: If you gathered all the creatures of the world to create even one mosquito it would not be possible to plant a soul within it. Yet, you talk about the souls "they made"! These are the converts that they converted, and if so, why does it say "they made"? This is to teach you that one who draws a worshipper of the stars close and converts them, it is as if they created them. Then it should say that "he made." Why does it say "they made"? Rabbi Huna says that Abraham would convert the men and Sarah would convert the women.

מדרש תנחומא, לך לך ג׳:ד׳

(ד) אֶל הָאָרֶץ אֲשֶׁר אַרְאֶךָּ, לֹא אָמַר לוֹ לְמָקוֹם פְּלוֹנִי, זוֹ נִסָּיוֹן בְּתוֹךְ נִסָּיוֹן. יֵשׁ אָדָם שֶׁהוֹלֵךְ וְאֵינוֹ יוֹדֵעַ לְאֵיזֶה מָקוֹם הוּא הוֹלֵךְ. מֶה עָשָׂה? נָטַל אֶת כֵּלָיו וְאֶת אִשְׁתּוֹ וַיֵּלֶךְ אַבְרָם כַּאֲשֶׁר דִּבֶּר אֵלָיו. וְאֶעֶשְׂךָ, אֵין כְּתִיב וַאֲשִׂימְךָ, אֶלָּא וְאֶעֶשְׂךָ. אָמַר לוֹ: אוֹתְךָ אֲנִי בוֹרֵא בְּרִיָּה חֲדָשָׁה, כָּעִנְיָן שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר: וַיַּעַשׂ אֱלֹהִים אֶת הָרָקִיעַ (בראשית א, ז), וַיַּעַשׂ אֱלֹהִים אֶת שְׁנֵי הַמְּאֹרֹת וְגוֹ' (בראשית א, טז).

Midrash Tanchuma, Lech Lecha 3:4

(4) Unto the land that I will show you (Gen. 12:1). The Holy One, blessed be He, did not mention any specific place. This indicates that this was a trial within a trial, as in the case of a man who embarks upon a journey without being aware of his destination. What did Abraham do? He took his possessions and his wife and departed: And Abraham went, as the Lord had spoken to him (ibid., v. 4). And I will make of thee a great nation (ibid., v. 2). It is not written “I will establish you up as a great nation,” but I will make you a great nation; that is, I will create anew, as indicated by the verse And God made the firmament (ibid. 1:7); And God made the two great lights (ibid., v. 16).

Ilana Pardes, Imagining the Birth of Ancient Israel, in Culture of the Jews: A New History, David Biale (ed.) at 9: "In the episode following the Tower of Babel, God demands that Abraham leave his birthplace (Ur of the Chaldeans) and go forth (lekh lekha) to the land shown to him There, God assures him, "I will make of you a great nation and I will bless you; I will make your name great" (Genesis 12:2). Abraham's migration to Canaan offers offers a new departure. Whereas the sinful homegeneous community of Babel failed, Abraham's descendants, the people God has chosen frum a multitude of peoples, seem to hold much promise, destined as they are (unlike the builders of the Tower) to acquire a "great name." The primary exile of the first patriarch, his capacity to part from his cultural origins, is construed as an essential rift, a prerequisite for the rise of the nation.

The Beginning of Desire, Avivah Gottlieb Zornberg at 74: "Here begins the journey of lekh lekha (12:1)--with its strange order of abandonments--first land, then community ("moladetkha"--again, the vlad root: "Leave that which produced you as one possible realization of its potential") and, finally, father's house. For the first time, a journey is undertaken not as an act of exile and diminution (Adam. Cain, and the dispersed generation of Babel), but as a response to a divine imperative that articulates and emphasizes displacement as its crucial experience."

Abraham is also called "HaIvri," Often Translated as "The Hebrew," a Name that has Many Possible Meanings

בראשית י״ד:י״ג

(יג) וַיָּבֹא֙ הַפָּלִ֔יט וַיַּגֵּ֖ד לְאַבְרָ֣ם הָעִבְרִ֑י וְהוּא֩ שֹׁכֵ֨ן בְּאֵֽלֹנֵ֜י מַמְרֵ֣א הָאֱמֹרִ֗י אֲחִ֤י אֶשְׁכֹּל֙ וַאֲחִ֣י עָנֵ֔ר וְהֵ֖ם בַּעֲלֵ֥י בְרִית־אַבְרָֽם׃

Genesis 14:13

(13) A fugitive brought the news to Abram the Hebrew, who was dwelling at the terebinths of Mamre the Amorite, kinsman of Eshkol and Aner, these being Abram’s allies.

One Meaning of עברי Comes from the Root ע-ב-ר Which Means to Cross or Pass Over

יהושע כ״ד:ב׳-ג׳

(ב) וַיֹּ֨אמֶר יְהוֹשֻׁ֜עַ אֶל־כָּל־הָעָ֗ם כֹּֽה־אָמַ֣ר יְהוָה֮ אֱלֹהֵ֣י יִשְׂרָאֵל֒ בְּעֵ֣בֶר הַנָּהָ֗ר יָשְׁב֤וּ אֲבֽוֹתֵיכֶם֙ מֵֽעוֹלָ֔ם תֶּ֛רַח אֲבִ֥י אַבְרָהָ֖ם וַאֲבִ֣י נָח֑וֹר וַיַּעַבְד֖וּ אֱלֹהִ֥ים אֲחֵרִֽים׃ (ג) וָ֠אֶקַּח אֶת־אֲבִיכֶ֤ם אֶת־אַבְרָהָם֙ מֵעֵ֣בֶר הַנָּהָ֔ר וָאוֹלֵ֥ךְ אוֹת֖וֹ בְּכָל־אֶ֣רֶץ כְּנָ֑עַן וארב [וָאַרְבֶּה֙] אֶת־זַרְע֔וֹ וָֽאֶתֶּן־ל֖וֹ אֶת־יִצְחָֽק׃

Joshua 24:2-3

(2) Then Joshua said to all the people, “Thus said the LORD, the God of Israel: In olden times, your forefathers—Terah, father of Abraham and father of Nahor—lived beyond the Euphrates and worshiped other gods. (3) But I took your father Abraham from beyond the Euphrates and led him through the whole land of Canaan and multiplied his offspring. I gave him Isaac.

יסטרוב, עֲבַר א׳

...

Jastrow, עֲבַר 1

עֲבַר, עָבַר ch. same , to pass, cross, step over, forgive &c. (v. preced.). Impf. יְעִיבַּר; infin. מִיעִיבַּר. Targ. Gen. XXXII, 17. Ib. XII, 6. Targ. O. Deut. XVII, 2 מִיעִיבַּר ed. Berl. (oth. ed. מֶעְבַּר, מֶעֱבַר; Y. מֵעִיבַר). Targ. Ps. CXXIV, 4; a. v. fr.—Sabb. 40ᵃ האי מאן דע׳ אדרבנן he who disregards Rabbinical enactments. Y. ib. VII, 9ᵃ top; Y. Yeb. VIII, 9ᶜ עַבְרַת בידך וכ׳, v. בְּדִי I. Y. Ab. Zar. III, 43ᵇ bot. מהו נִיעֲבוֹר קומוי how about passing it by?; … עבור וסמי עיניה pass it and ignore it, v. סְמֵי; Y. Ber. II, 4ᵇ מהו מִיעֲבוֹר (not מיהו); Y. Shek. II, 47ᵃ top; a. fr.

בראשית רבה מ״ב:א׳

(בראשית יד, יג): וַיַּגֵּד לְאַבְרָם הָעִבְרִי, רַבִּי יְהוּדָה וְרַבִּי נְחֶמְיָה וְרַבָּנָן, רַבִּי יְהוּדָה אוֹמֵר כָּל הָעוֹלָם כֻּלּוֹ מֵעֵבֶר אֶחָד וְהוּא מֵעֵבֶר אֶחָד.

Bereshit Rabbah 42:1

(1) “Avram the Hebrew was told.” Rabbi Yehudah, Rabbi Nechemyah, and the sages [disagree]. Rabbi Yehudah says: the entire world is on one side and he is on the other side [the word for “side” in Hebrew is מעבר , which stems from the same root עבר ].

Another, Perhaps Related Meaning, Comes from עבר Eiver, a Son of Shem, and an Ancestor of Abraham

רד"ק על בראשית י״ד:י״ג:ב׳

(ב) העברי, מבני בני עבר, וכלם התיחסו אליו, אבל אברהם וזרעו התיחדו ביחס כי להם נשאר לשון עבר, והאחרים מבניו ובני בניו אחזו בידם לשון ארמי ונקראו ארמיים כמו לבן הארמי וזולתו, וזרע אברהם אשר ליעקב נקראו עברים.

Radak on Genesis 14:13:2

(2) העברי, a member of the tribe of Eiver, he and all his descendants proudly regarded Eiver as their ancestor. They were the only people who still spoke Hebrew, the original language of man. Subsequent descendants, other than the line which ran through Avraham and the Israelites, changed their language to Aramaic, and were called Aramim, i.e. members of the people of Aram, in recognition of their specific language. Even Lavan, a third or fourth generation descendant of Eiver, was already known as לבן הארמי, Lavan who spoke Aramaic. The tribe called עברים was Yaakov and his offspring.

יסטרוב, עֵבֶר I א׳

...

Jastrow, עֵבֶר I 1

עֵבֶר I (b. h.) pr. n. m. Eber, a descendant of Shem, believed to have maintained schools (oracles) in connection with Shem. Gen. R. s. 63 (ref. to Gen. XXV, 22) למדרשו של שם וע׳ to the school of Shem and Eber. Gen. R. s. 37 נביא גדול היה ע׳ וכ׳ E. was a great prophet, for he gave names alluding to coming events. Ib. s. 42 (expl. העברי, Gen. XIV, 13) שהוא מבני בניו של ע׳ because he is a descendant of Eber; a. fr.

עברי Probably Doesn't Refer to the Hebrew Language in this Context

בראשית רבה מ''ב:א

וְרַבָּנָן אָמְרֵי שֶׁהוּא מֵעֵבֶר הַנָּהָר, וְשֶׁהוּא מֵשִׂיחַ בִּלְשׁוֹן עִבְרִי.

Bereshit Rabbah 42:1

The sages say: he is from the other side of the river and that he speaks in the Hebrew tongue.

Hebrew Between Cultures, Meir Sternberg, at 1-2: "In its rare reflexsive moments, the Bible never calls its language "Hebrew" as we anachronists have been doing for over two thousand years. The term employed is rather "the tongue of Canaan [sephat kena'an] or Judahite/Judaean/Jewish [yehudit]."....Whichever term or period you take, the Bible knows no such language as "Hebrew." Nor does the Bible usually refer to the native speakers of its language as "Hebrews [Ivrim]" but as "Sons of Israel [bene yisra'el]," "Israelites," or, later, "Judahites/Judeans/Jews [yehudim]."....While the Bible's rule of nonHebrewing the language has no exceptions, the lexical norm of group reference is apparently broken to manifest Hebrewness about thirty times; and its breach has long exercised scholars--with reason, considering the issues at stake. Who are the Bible's Hebrews? What and how does the name (or epithet) signify?

עברי May Refer to Those on the Margin of Society

בראשית רבה מ״ב:ח׳

(ח) (בראשית יד, יג): וַיַּגֵּד לְאַבְרָם הָעִבְרִי, רַבִּי יְהוּדָה וְרַבִּי נְחֶמְיָה וְרַבָּנָן, רַבִּי יְהוּדָה אוֹמֵר כָּל הָעוֹלָם כֻּלּוֹ מֵעֵבֶר אֶחָד וְהוּא מֵעֵבֶר אֶחָד.

Bereshit Rabbah 42:8

"He told Abram, the Ivri"...Rabbi Yehuda and Rabbi Nechemya and the Sages address the meaning. Rabbi Yehuda say that this means that the whole world was on one side and he was on the other.

Who Were the Hebrews?, Dr. Albert D. Friedberg: "Many modern scholars have argued that the term ivri is cognate with the Akkadian term Ḥabiru/Apiru, a group of people of lower economic and social standing who roamed the vast plains of Mitanni, Syria, and Palestine as serfs, brigands, half-citizens, and mercenaries through the second millennia and until the onset of the Iron Age. While there is no scholarly consensus regarding the identification of ivri with Ḥabiru, scholars agree that these Ḥabiru were not Israelites per se, or any other specific ethnic group. Instead, nearly all scholars today would agree with Nadav Naaman’s statement that, [O]ne may safely conclude that the people designated as Habiru, who appeared at different places at different times in various Western Asiatic regions, had nothing in common apart from their similar social status. Each society had its own Habiru-people. [footnotes omitted]
https://thetorah.com/who-were-the-hebrews/

Subversive Sequels in the Bible, Judy Klitsner, at 41-2: God commands Abraham to leave behind everything that is familiar and to embark on a path that is uniquely his (Gen. 12:1). And in fact, throughout his trials, Abraham maintains his solitary stance, earning the title "Abraham the Ivri, Hebrew (14:13), a term that throughout the Bible suggests singularity and otherness." (42n.26: "This interpretation is supported by the use of the term Ivri throughout the Bible to denote Israelites as a group distinct from their surroundings.")

"Israel" is Another Name for Jacob, the Grandson of Abraham and Sarah

בראשית ל״ב:כ״ה-ל״א

(כה) וַיִּוָּתֵ֥ר יַעֲקֹ֖ב לְבַדּ֑וֹ וַיֵּאָבֵ֥ק אִישׁ֙ עִמּ֔וֹ עַ֖ד עֲל֥וֹת הַשָּֽׁחַר׃ (כו) וַיַּ֗רְא כִּ֣י לֹ֤א יָכֹל֙ ל֔וֹ וַיִּגַּ֖ע בְּכַף־יְרֵכ֑וֹ וַתֵּ֙קַע֙ כַּף־יֶ֣רֶךְ יַעֲקֹ֔ב בְּהֵֽאָבְק֖וֹ עִמּֽוֹ׃ (כז) וַיֹּ֣אמֶר שַׁלְּחֵ֔נִי כִּ֥י עָלָ֖ה הַשָּׁ֑חַר וַיֹּ֙אמֶר֙ לֹ֣א אֲשַֽׁלֵּחֲךָ֔ כִּ֖י אִם־בֵּרַכְתָּֽנִי׃ (כח) וַיֹּ֥אמֶר אֵלָ֖יו מַה־שְּׁמֶ֑ךָ וַיֹּ֖אמֶר יַעֲקֹֽב׃ (כט) וַיֹּ֗אמֶר לֹ֤א יַעֲקֹב֙ יֵאָמֵ֥ר עוֹד֙ שִׁמְךָ֔ כִּ֖י אִם־יִשְׂרָאֵ֑ל כִּֽי־שָׂרִ֧יתָ עִם־אֱלֹהִ֛ים וְעִם־אֲנָשִׁ֖ים וַתּוּכָֽל׃ (ל) וַיִּשְׁאַ֣ל יַעֲקֹ֗ב וַיֹּ֙אמֶר֙ הַגִּֽידָה־נָּ֣א שְׁמֶ֔ךָ וַיֹּ֕אמֶר לָ֥מָּה זֶּ֖ה תִּשְׁאַ֣ל לִשְׁמִ֑י וַיְבָ֥רֶךְ אֹת֖וֹ שָֽׁם׃ (לא) וַיִּקְרָ֧א יַעֲקֹ֛ב שֵׁ֥ם הַמָּק֖וֹם פְּנִיאֵ֑ל כִּֽי־רָאִ֤יתִי אֱלֹהִים֙ פָּנִ֣ים אֶל־פָּנִ֔ים וַתִּנָּצֵ֖ל נַפְשִֽׁי׃

Genesis 32:25-31

(25) Jacob was left alone. And a man wrestled with him until the break of dawn. (26) When he saw that he had not prevailed against him, he wrenched Jacob’s hip at its socket, so that the socket of his hip was strained as he wrestled with him. (27) Then he said, “Let me go, for dawn is breaking.” But he answered, “I will not let you go, unless you bless me.” (28) Said the other, “What is your name?” He replied, “Jacob.” (29) Said he, “Your name shall no longer be Jacob, but Israel, for you have striven with beings divine and human, and have prevailed.” (30) Jacob asked, “Pray tell me your name.” But he said, “You must not ask my name!” And he took leave of him there. (31) So Jacob named the place Peniel, meaning, “I have seen a divine being face to face, yet my life has been preserved.”

ברכות י״ב ב:כ״ח-י״ג א:א׳

כיוצא בו אתה אומר לא יקרא שמך עוד יעקב כי אם ישראל יהיה שמך לא שיעקר יעקב ממקומו אלא ישראל עיקר ויעקב טפל לו וכן הוא אומר אל תזכרו ראשנות וקדמניות אל תתבננו אל תזכרו ראשנות זה שעבוד מלכיות וקדמניות אל תתבננו זו יציאת מצרים

Berakhot 12b:28-13a:1

On a similar note, you say: The meaning of the expressions: It will not say, and they will no longer mention, are not absolute, as in the verse: “Your name shall no longer be called Jacob; rather, Israel will be your name” (Genesis 35:10). There, too, the meaning is not that the name Jacob will be entirely uprooted from its place, but that the name Israel will be the primary name to which the name Jacob will be secondary, as the Torah continues to refer to him as Jacob after this event. And it also says that the ultimate redemption will overshadow the previous redemption in the verse: “Do not remember the former events, and do not ponder things of old” (Isaiah 43:18), and the Gemara explains: “Do not remember the former events,” that is the subjugation to the kingdoms, and “do not ponder things of old,” that is the exodus from Egypt, which occurred before the subjugation to the nations.

The JPS Torah Commentary: Genesis, Nahum Sarna, at 404-5: "The precise understanding of this name is impeded by many difficulties, not the least being that it grammatical structure has no exact analogue among biblical personal names....None of the suggestions proposed to explain the verbal elements has yielded satisfaction. Until more philological evidence is forthcoming, the true explanation escapes us. It is worth noting that in biblical times there already seem to have been traditions connecting the name yisra'el with either sovereignty or rectitude. Hosea 12:5, in reference to our narrative, says of Jacob va-yasar, which can only derive from s-w-r, "to have dominion," as proven by Judges 9:22 and Hosea 8:4. This suggests that the prophet took the name to mean "He had dominion over a divine being."

"The Children of Israel" Become a Nation as a Result of the Exodus from Egypt

שמות א׳:א׳-ז׳

(א) וְאֵ֗לֶּה שְׁמוֹת֙ בְּנֵ֣י יִשְׂרָאֵ֔ל הַבָּאִ֖ים מִצְרָ֑יְמָה אֵ֣ת יַעֲקֹ֔ב אִ֥ישׁ וּבֵית֖וֹ בָּֽאוּ׃ (ב) רְאוּבֵ֣ן שִׁמְע֔וֹן לֵוִ֖י וִיהוּדָֽה׃ (ג) יִשָּׂשכָ֥ר זְבוּלֻ֖ן וּבְנְיָמִֽן׃ (ד) דָּ֥ן וְנַפְתָּלִ֖י גָּ֥ד וְאָשֵֽׁר׃ (ה) וַֽיְהִ֗י כָּל־נֶ֛פֶשׁ יֹצְאֵ֥י יֶֽרֶךְ־יַעֲקֹ֖ב שִׁבְעִ֣ים נָ֑פֶשׁ וְיוֹסֵ֖ף הָיָ֥ה בְמִצְרָֽיִם׃ (ו) וַיָּ֤מָת יוֹסֵף֙ וְכָל־אֶחָ֔יו וְכֹ֖ל הַדּ֥וֹר הַהֽוּא׃ (ז) וּבְנֵ֣י יִשְׂרָאֵ֗ל פָּר֧וּ וַֽיִּשְׁרְצ֛וּ וַיִּרְבּ֥וּ וַיַּֽעַצְמ֖וּ בִּמְאֹ֣ד מְאֹ֑ד וַתִּמָּלֵ֥א הָאָ֖רֶץ אֹתָֽם׃ (פ)

Exodus 1:1-7

(1) These are the names of the sons of Israel who came to Egypt with Jacob, each coming with his household: (2) Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah; (3) Issachar, Zebulun, and Benjamin; (4) Dan and Naphtali, Gad and Asher. (5) The total number of persons that were of Jacob’s issue came to seventy, Joseph being already in Egypt. (6) Joseph died, and all his brothers, and all that generation. (7) But the Israelites were fertile and prolific; they multiplied and increased very greatly, so that the land was filled with them.

שמות ד׳:כ״ב-כ״ג

(כב) וְאָמַרְתָּ֖ אֶל־פַּרְעֹ֑ה כֹּ֚ה אָמַ֣ר יְהוָ֔ה בְּנִ֥י בְכֹרִ֖י יִשְׂרָאֵֽל׃ (כג) וָאֹמַ֣ר אֵלֶ֗יךָ שַׁלַּ֤ח אֶת־בְּנִי֙ וְיַֽעַבְדֵ֔נִי וַתְּמָאֵ֖ן לְשַׁלְּח֑וֹ הִנֵּה֙ אָנֹכִ֣י הֹרֵ֔ג אֶת־בִּנְךָ֖ בְּכֹרֶֽךָ׃

Exodus 4:22-23

(22) Then you shall say to Pharaoh, ‘Thus says the LORD: Israel is My first-born son. (23) I have said to you, “Let My son go, that he may worship Me,” yet you refuse to let him go. Now I will slay your first-born son.’”

The Culture of the Jews: A New History, David Biale (ed.), Imagining the Birth of Ancient Israel, Ilana Pardes at 123. "The metaphor of birth is probably the most resonant anthropomorphic image in national narrative from antiquity to modern times. In fact, it is so resonant one tends to forget that nations are not born literally but are, rather, imagined in these terms. Every nation, however, has its own birth story, or birth stories. The book of Exodus provides an intriguingly complex representation of Israel's birth in keeping with the preliminary imaginings of the nation in Genesis. The opening verses of Exodus 1 make clear that God's reiterated promises to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob--the grand national annunciation scenes of Genesis--are finally realized. The descendants of Jacob, whose names are listed solemnly, multiply at an uncanny pace and turn into a "mighty" nation: the nation of the "children of Israel" "Israel" for the first time is not merely Jacob's second, elevated, name but rather a collective designation of a burgeoning community that fills the land."

Kol Dodi Dofek, Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik: "In order to explain the difference between a People of Fate and a Nation of Destiny it is appropriate to deal with a different contrast--that between an Encampment and a Congregation....An Encampment is born out of the terror of destruction and loss, from the fear that fate is overwhelming. From the midst of the Encampment, the People arises. In the beginning, the Jews in Egypt were an Encampment. When they were freed by the Holy One, they rose to the level of a nation. Indeed, the Congregation has a special place in the kingdom of man and in his mighty spirit. The Congregation is man's characteristic creation, and his glorious persona hovers over it. The Congregation is not created as a result of negative causes or out of fear of the fate that pursues man, who senses his own misery and feeblemenss, but rather as a result of postive impulses. Destiny is the foundation of the Congregation. A Congregation is a collection of individuals with a single past, a common future, shared aspirations, identical yearnings for a world that is totally good and pleasant. and a singular and harmonious destiny....A Congregation is a holy nation that does not fear fate and does not live against its will. It believes in its destiny and of its free will sanctifies itself for its realization. The Covenant of Egypt was made with a people that was born in the Encampment, the Covenant of Sinai was concluded with a holy people."

The Stele of Merneptah, 13th Century B.C.E.

Culture of the Jews: A New History, Introduction to Part One: Mediterranean Origins, David Biale at 3: "The earliest mention of ancient Israel appears on a stele or victory monument of the Pharaoh Merneptah in the second half of the thirteenth entury B.C.E. There the pharaoh boasts: "Israel is laid waste, his seed is no more." An inauspicious beginning for a people that was to last over three millennia after their proclaimed extermination!

The People of Israel Include the Tribe of Judah, Descended from the 4th Son of Jacob

בראשית מ״ט:ח׳-י״ב

(ח) יְהוּדָ֗ה אַתָּה֙ יוֹד֣וּךָ אַחֶ֔יךָ יָדְךָ֖ בְּעֹ֣רֶף אֹיְבֶ֑יךָ יִשְׁתַּחֲוּ֥וּ לְךָ֖ בְּנֵ֥י אָבִֽיךָ׃ (ט) גּ֤וּר אַרְיֵה֙ יְהוּדָ֔ה מִטֶּ֖רֶף בְּנִ֣י עָלִ֑יתָ כָּרַ֨ע רָבַ֧ץ כְּאַרְיֵ֛ה וּכְלָבִ֖יא מִ֥י יְקִימֶֽנּוּ׃ (י) לֹֽא־יָס֥וּר שֵׁ֙בֶט֙ מִֽיהוּדָ֔ה וּמְחֹקֵ֖ק מִבֵּ֣ין רַגְלָ֑יו עַ֚ד כִּֽי־יָבֹ֣א שילה [שִׁיל֔וֹ] וְל֖וֹ יִקְּהַ֥ת עַמִּֽים׃ (יא) אֹסְרִ֤י לַגֶּ֙פֶן֙ עירה [עִיר֔וֹ] וְלַשֹּׂרֵקָ֖ה בְּנִ֣י אֲתֹנ֑וֹ כִּבֵּ֤ס בַּיַּ֙יִן֙ לְבֻשׁ֔וֹ וּבְדַם־עֲנָבִ֖ים סותה [סוּתֽוֹ׃] (יב) חַכְלִילִ֥י עֵינַ֖יִם מִיָּ֑יִן וּלְבֶן־שִׁנַּ֖יִם מֵחָלָֽב׃ (פ)

Genesis 49:8-12

(8) You, O Judah, your brothers shall praise; Your hand shall be on the nape of your foes; Your father’s sons shall bow low to you. (9) Judah is a lion’s whelp; On prey, my son, have you grown. He crouches, lies down like a lion, Like the king of beasts—who dare rouse him? (10) The scepter shall not depart from Judah, Nor the ruler’s staff from between his feet; So that tribute shall come to him And the homage of peoples be his. (11) He tethers his ass to a vine, His ass’s foal to a choice vine; He washes his garment in wine, His robe in blood of grapes. (12) His eyes are darker than wine; His teeth are whiter than milk.

שמואל ב ה׳:א׳-ה׳

(א) וַיָּבֹ֜אוּ כָּל־שִׁבְטֵ֧י יִשְׂרָאֵ֛ל אֶל־דָּוִ֖ד חֶבְר֑וֹנָה וַיֹּאמְר֣וּ לֵאמֹ֔ר הִנְנ֛וּ עַצְמְךָ֥ וּֽבְשָׂרְךָ֖ אֲנָֽחְנוּ׃ (ב) גַּם־אֶתְמ֣וֹל גַּם־שִׁלְשׁ֗וֹם בִּהְי֨וֹת שָׁא֥וּל מֶ֙לֶךְ֙ עָלֵ֔ינוּ אַתָּ֗ה הייתה [הָיִ֛יתָ] מוציא [הַמּוֹצִ֥יא] והמבי [וְהַמֵּבִ֖יא] אֶת־יִשְׂרָאֵ֑ל וַיֹּ֨אמֶר יְהוָ֜ה לְךָ֗ אַתָּ֨ה תִרְעֶ֤ה אֶת־עַמִּי֙ אֶת־יִשְׂרָאֵ֔ל וְאַתָּ֛ה תִּהְיֶ֥ה לְנָגִ֖יד עַל־יִשְׂרָאֵֽל׃ (ג) וַ֠יָּבֹאוּ כָּל־זִקְנֵ֨י יִשְׂרָאֵ֤ל אֶל־הַמֶּ֙לֶךְ֙ חֶבְר֔וֹנָה וַיִּכְרֹ֣ת לָהֶם֩ הַמֶּ֨לֶךְ דָּוִ֥ד בְּרִ֛ית בְּחֶבְר֖וֹן לִפְנֵ֣י יְהוָ֑ה וַיִּמְשְׁח֧וּ אֶת־דָּוִ֛ד לְמֶ֖לֶךְ עַל־יִשְׂרָאֵֽל׃ (פ) (ד) בֶּן־שְׁלֹשִׁ֥ים שָׁנָ֛ה דָּוִ֖ד בְּמָלְכ֑וֹ אַרְבָּעִ֥ים שָׁנָ֖ה מָלָֽךְ׃ (ה) בְּחֶבְרוֹן֙ מָלַ֣ךְ עַל־יְהוּדָ֔ה שֶׁ֥בַע שָׁנִ֖ים וְשִׁשָּׁ֣ה חֳדָשִׁ֑ים וּבִירוּשָׁלִַ֣ם מָלַ֗ךְ שְׁלֹשִׁ֤ים וְשָׁלֹשׁ֙ שָׁנָ֔ה עַ֥ל כָּל־יִשְׂרָאֵ֖ל וִיהוּדָֽה׃

II Samuel 5:1-5

(1) All the tribes of Israel came to David at Hebron and said, “We are your own flesh and blood. (2) Long before now, when Saul was king over us, it was you who led Israel in war; and the LORD said to you: You shall shepherd My people Israel; you shall be ruler of Israel.” (3) All the elders of Israel came to the king at Hebron, and King David made a pact with them in Hebron before the LORD. And they anointed David king over Israel. (4) David was thirty years old when he became king, and he reigned forty years. (5) In Hebron he reigned over Judah seven years and six months, and in Jerusalem he reigned over all Israel and Judah thirty-three years.

"Israel" is Sometimes Used to Refer to the Northern Kingdom Founded by Jeroboam after the Death of Solomon

מלכים א י״ב:ט״ז-כ׳

(טז) וַיַּ֣רְא כָּל־יִשְׂרָאֵ֗ל כִּ֠י לֹֽא־שָׁמַ֣ע הַמֶּלֶךְ֮ אֲלֵיהֶם֒ וַיָּשִׁ֣בוּ הָעָ֣ם אֶת־הַמֶּ֣לֶךְ דָּבָ֣ר ׀ לֵאמֹ֡ר מַה־לָּנוּ֩ חֵ֨לֶק בְּדָוִ֜ד וְלֹֽא־נַחֲלָ֣ה בְּבֶן־יִשַׁ֗י לְאֹהָלֶ֙יךָ֙ יִשְׂרָאֵ֔ל עַתָּ֕ה רְאֵ֥ה בֵיתְךָ֖ דָּוִ֑ד וַיֵּ֥לֶךְ יִשְׂרָאֵ֖ל לְאֹהָלָֽיו׃ (יז) וּבְנֵ֣י יִשְׂרָאֵ֔ל הַיֹּשְׁבִ֖ים בְּעָרֵ֣י יְהוּדָ֑ה וַיִּמְלֹ֥ךְ עֲלֵיהֶ֖ם רְחַבְעָֽם׃ (פ) (יח) וַיִּשְׁלַ֞ח הַמֶּ֣לֶךְ רְחַבְעָ֗ם אֶת־אֲדֹרָם֙ אֲשֶׁ֣ר עַל־הַמַּ֔ס וַיִּרְגְּמ֨וּ כָל־יִשְׂרָאֵ֥ל בּ֛וֹ אֶ֖בֶן וַיָּמֹ֑ת וְהַמֶּ֣לֶךְ רְחַבְעָ֗ם הִתְאַמֵּץ֙ לַעֲל֣וֹת בַּמֶּרְכָּבָ֔ה לָנ֖וּס יְרוּשָׁלִָֽם׃ (יט) וַיִּפְשְׁע֤וּ יִשְׂרָאֵל֙ בְּבֵ֣ית דָּוִ֔ד עַ֖ד הַיּ֥וֹם הַזֶּֽה׃ (ס) (כ) וַיְהִ֞י כִּשְׁמֹ֤עַ כָּל־יִשְׂרָאֵל֙ כִּֽי־שָׁ֣ב יָרָבְעָ֔ם וַֽיִּשְׁלְח֗וּ וַיִּקְרְא֤וּ אֹתוֹ֙ אֶל־הָ֣עֵדָ֔ה וַיַּמְלִ֥יכוּ אֹת֖וֹ עַל־כָּל־יִשְׂרָאֵ֑ל לֹ֤א הָיָה֙ אַחֲרֵ֣י בֵית־דָּוִ֔ד זוּלָתִ֥י שֵֽׁבֶט־יְהוּדָ֖ה לְבַדּֽוֹ׃

I Kings 12:16-20

(16) When all Israel saw that the king had not listened to them, the people answered the king: “We have no portion in David, No share in Jesse’s son! To your tents, O Israel! Now look to your own House, O David.” So the Israelites returned to their homes. (17) But Rehoboam continued to reign over the Israelites who lived in the towns of Judah. (18) King Rehoboam sent Adoram, who was in charge of the forced labor, but all Israel pelted him to death with stones. Thereupon King Rehoboam hurriedly mounted his chariot and fled to Jerusalem. (19) Thus Israel revolted against the House of David, as is still the case. (20) When all Israel heard that Jeroboam had returned, they sent messengers and summoned him to the assembly and made him king over all Israel. Only the tribe of Judah remained loyal to the House of David.

מלכים ב י״ח:ט׳-י״ב

(ט) וַֽיְהִ֞י בַּשָּׁנָ֤ה הָֽרְבִיעִית֙ לַמֶּ֣לֶךְ חִזְקִיָּ֔הוּ הִ֚יא הַשָּׁנָ֣ה הַשְּׁבִיעִ֔ית לְהוֹשֵׁ֥עַ בֶּן־אֵלָ֖ה מֶ֣לֶךְ יִשְׂרָאֵ֑ל עָלָ֞ה שַׁלְמַנְאֶ֧סֶר מֶֽלֶךְ־אַשּׁ֛וּר עַל־שֹׁמְר֖וֹן וַיָּ֥צַר עָלֶֽיהָ׃ (י) וַֽיִּלְכְּדֻ֗הָ מִקְצֵה֙ שָׁלֹ֣שׁ שָׁנִ֔ים בִּשְׁנַת־שֵׁ֖שׁ לְחִזְקִיָּ֑ה הִ֣יא שְׁנַת־תֵּ֗שַׁע לְהוֹשֵׁ֙עַ֙ מֶ֣לֶךְ יִשְׂרָאֵ֔ל נִלְכְּדָ֖ה שֹׁמְרֽוֹן׃ (יא) וַיֶּ֧גֶל מֶֽלֶךְ־אַשּׁ֛וּר אֶת־יִשְׂרָאֵ֖ל אַשּׁ֑וּרָה וַיַּנְחֵ֞ם בַּחְלַ֧ח וּבְחָב֛וֹר נְהַ֥ר גּוֹזָ֖ן וְעָרֵ֥י מָדָֽי׃ (יב) עַ֣ל ׀ אֲשֶׁ֣ר לֹֽא־שָׁמְע֗וּ בְּקוֹל֙ יְהוָ֣ה אֱלֹהֵיהֶ֔ם וַיַּעַבְרוּ֙ אֶת־בְּרִית֔וֹ אֵ֚ת כָּל־אֲשֶׁ֣ר צִוָּ֔ה מֹשֶׁ֖ה עֶ֣בֶד יְהוָ֑ה וְלֹ֥א שָׁמְע֖וּ וְלֹ֥א עָשֽׂוּ׃ (פ)

II Kings 18:9-12

(9) In the fourth year of King Hezekiah, which was the seventh year of King Hoshea son of Elah of Israel, King Shalmaneser of Assyria marched against Samaria and besieged it, (10) and he captured it at the end of three years. In the sixth year of Hezekiah, which was the ninth year of King Hoshea of Israel, Samaria was captured; (11) and the king of Assyria deported the Israelites to Assyria. He settled them in Halah, along the Habor [and] the River Gozan, and in the towns of Media. (12) [This happened] because they did not obey the LORD their God; they transgressed His covenant—all that Moses the servant of the LORD had commanded. They did not obey and they did not fulfill it.

The People of Israel are Later Also Called "Yehudi (sing.)" or "Yehudim (plural)"

אסתר ב׳:ה׳

(ה) אִ֣ישׁ יְהוּדִ֔י הָיָ֖ה בְּשׁוּשַׁ֣ן הַבִּירָ֑ה וּשְׁמ֣וֹ מָרְדֳּכַ֗י בֶּ֣ן יָאִ֧יר בֶּן־שִׁמְעִ֛י בֶּן־קִ֖ישׁ אִ֥ישׁ יְמִינִֽי׃

Esther 2:5

(5) In the fortress Shushan lived a Judite by the name of Mordecai, son of Jair son of Shimei son of Kish, a member of (the tribe) of Benjamin.

Encyclopedia Judaica, "Jew" (Yehoshua M. Grintz) "The word "Jew" passed into the English language from the Greek (Ioudaios) by way of the Latin (Judaeus), and is found in early English (from the about the year 1000) in a variety of forms: Iudea, Gyu, Giu, Iuw, Iew, which developed into "Jew." The word "Jew" therefore, is ultimately traced to the Hebrew Yehudi, a term which originally applied to members of the tribe of Judah, the fourth son of the patriarch, Jacob. The term was also utilized for those who dwelt in the area of the tribe of Judah, and thus later, during the seven years that David reigned in Hebron, his territory was called the Kingdom of Judah (II Sam. 5:5 [above]). Later still, with the split of the kingdom during the reign of Rehoboam, the Northern Kingdom was called Israel and the Southern was called Judah, although it also encompassed the territory of the tribe of Benjamin (1 Kings 12:16-21 [above]). From that time on the term "Yehudi" applied to all residents of the Southern Kingdom, irrespective of their tribal status. After the destruction of Israel only Judah remained, and the term "Yehudi" or "Jew" then lost its specific connection with the Southern Kingdom.

מלכים ב ט״ז:ו׳

(ו) בָּעֵ֣ת הַהִ֗יא הֵ֠שִׁיב רְצִ֨ין מֶֽלֶךְ־אֲרָ֤ם אֶת־אֵילַת֙ לַֽאֲרָ֔ם וַיְנַשֵּׁ֥ל אֶת־הַיְהוּדִ֖ים מֵֽאֵיל֑וֹת וארמים [וַֽאֲדוֹמִים֙] בָּ֣אוּ אֵילַ֔ת וַיֵּ֣שְׁבוּ שָׁ֔ם עַ֖ד הַיּ֥וֹם הַזֶּֽה׃ (פ)

II Kings 16:6

(6) At that time King Rezin of Aram recovered Elath for Aram; he drove out the Judites from Elath, and Edomites came to Elath and settled there, as is still the case.

The Beginnings of Jewishness, Shaye J.D. Cohen at 104-5: "Greek Ioudaios, Latin Iudaeus, and Hebrew Yehudi are almost always translated as "Jew," but in all occurrences of the term before the end of the second century B.C.E. this translation is wrong, because before that point these words always and everywhere mean "Judean," not "Jew." "Judaean" is an ethnic-geographical term: a Judean is a member of the Judaean people (ethnos) and hails from Judaea, the ethnic homeland. In the diaspora a "Judaean" is a member of an association of those who hailed originally from the ethnic homeland; a person might be a Judaean even if he or she had not been born in Judaea or ever set foot there. Like all other ethnic-geographic groups, Judaeans have their own language, customs, institutions, dress, cuisine, religion, and so on, but no one of these characteristics is necessarily more important thanany other in defining a "Judaean." Texts describing Judaeans may deal with their religion or way of life, but this fact does not change the primary meaning of the concept "Judaean." In contrast, "Jew" (at least in English) is a religious term: a Jew is someone who venerates the God of the Judaeans, the God whose temple is in Jerusalem (the capital of Judaea). "Jew," then, denotes culture, way of life, or "religion," not ethnic or geographic origin."

"Yehudi," through Greek usage, later becomes the English word "Jew"

ספר מקבים ב ו׳:ה׳

(ה) וישכח בירושלים שבת ומועד, ולא קם עוד רוח באיש לאמור כי מזרע היהודים הוא.

The Book of Maccabees II 6:5

Every one in Jerusalem forgot about Shabbat and the festival days, and one was no longer inclined to admit that he was one of the Jews.

2 Maccabees 6:6 ἦν δ᾽ οὔτε σαββατίζειν οὔτε πατρῴους ἑορτὰς διαφυλάττειν οὔτε ἁπλῶς Ιουδαῖον ὁμολογεῖν εἶναι (2 Ma. 6:6 BGT)[corresponds to 6:5 above]

ספר מקבים ב ט׳:כ״ב

(כב) וגם נשבע שבועה להתייהד ולעבור בכל ארץ הנושבה להודיע גבורות ה' תחת כל השמים.

The Book of Maccabees II 9:22

He (Antiochus) also swore an oath to become a Jew and to travel across the inhabited world to proclaim the might of Adonai under all the heavens.

2 Maccabees 9:17 πρὸς δὲ τούτοις καὶ Ιουδαῖον ἔσεσθαι καὶ πάντα τόπον οἰκητὸν ἐπελεύσεσθαι καταγγέλλοντα τὸ τοῦ θεοῦ κράτος (2 Ma. 9:17 BGT)(corresponds to 9:22 above)

The Beginnings of Jewishness, Shaye J.D. Cohen at 105-6: "Out of the clash between Judaism (the ways of the Judaeans) and Hellenism (the way of the Greeks) emerged two new definitions of [the Greek] Ioudaios that for the first time allowed gentiles the opportunity to join the Judaean people. The first definition was political; the Judaeans form a political community and could extend citizenship even to nonnatives. Such newly enfranchised citizens became themselves became Ioudaioi or Judaeans. They still retained their prior ethnicity and much of their prior religion and culture, but they joined the Judaean people and declared loyalty to the God of the Judaeans....The second definition was cultural (or "religious"); the Judaeans form a religious community and could extend membership to nonnatives who believe in the God of the Judaeans and observe his precepts. A non-Judaean could become a Ioudaios by joining the Judaeans in venerating the one true God, the God whose temple is in Jerusalem. Second Maccabees 6:6 and 9:17 [6:5 and 9:22 above in the Hebrew], the first witness to this new conception and new terminology, mark an important turning point in the history of the word Ioudaios and, indeed, in the history of Judaism. As is well known, 2 Maccabees is the first work to use the word Ioudaismos. We are tempted, of course, to translate this as "Judaism, but this translation is too narrow, because in this first instance of the term, Ioudaismos has not yet been reduced to a designation of a religion. It means rather "the aggregate of all those characteristics that make Judaeans Judaean (or Jews Jewish."....The creation of the word Ioudaismos is an important moment in the development of Jewish self-identity and in the birth of Jewishness, but even more strking is the use of the old word Ioudaios in a new way. Second Maccabees is the first work to use Ioudaismos and the first work to use Ioudaios in the sense of "Jew.""